Facebook As A Campaign Tool During The 2012 Elections: A New Dimension To Agenda Setting Discourse
Keywords:
Agenda setting, 2012 election campaign, social media, two-step flowAbstract
The social networking site Facebook has risen to become an important campaign tool for politicians while also raising new questions about how its use is reshaping the agenda setting paradigm. This research examines the extent to which the Facebook messages of presidential nominees during the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign were transferred to the online public on Facebook and, via a two-step flow, to the greater citizen’s agenda. Findings demonstrate that in their political campaigns on Facebook, politicians are successfully transferring their first- and, to a lesser extent, second-level agendas to the Facebook public agenda, which largely mirrors the greater public agenda.
References
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Camaj, L., & Santana, A. D. (2013). Political Discourse on Facebook during presidential elections: The role of moderator and political ideology for online deliberation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Washington, DC.
Cha, M., Haddadi, H., Benevenuto, F., & Gummadi, K. P. (2010). Measuring user influence in twitter: The million follower fallacy. Proceedings of the Fourth International Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, Washington, D.C.
Cohen, B. (1963). The press and foreign policy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Dalton, R. J., Beck, P. A., Huckfeldt, R., & Koetzle, W. (1998). A test of media-centered agenda setting: Newspaper content and public interests in a presidential election. Political Communication, 15(4), 463-481. doi: 10.1080/105846098198849
Dearing, J. W., & Rogers, E. M. (1996). Agenda-setting. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fernandes, J., Giurcanu, M., Bowers, K. W., & Neely, J. C. (2010). The writing on the wall: A content analysis of college students' Facebook groups for the 2008 presidential election. Mass Communication and Society, 13(5), 653-675. doi: 10.1080/15205436.2010.516865
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Golan, G. J., & Wanta, W. (2001). Second-level agenda setting in the New Hampshire primary: A comparison of coverage in three newspapers and public perceptions of candidates. Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly, 78(2), 247-259. doi: 10.1177/107769900107800203
Golan, G. J., Kiousis, S. K., & McDaniel, M. L. (2007). Second-level agenda setting and political advertising. Journalism Studies, 8(3): 432-443. doi: 10.1080/14616700701276190
Gueorguieva, V. (2008). Voters, MySpace, and YouTube: The impact of alternative communication channels on the 2006 election cycle and beyond. Social Science Computer Review, 26(3), 288-300. doi: 10.1177/0894439307305636
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Hester, J. B., & Dougall, E. (2007). The efficiency of constructed week sampling for content analysis of online news. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(4), 811-824. doi: 10.1177/107769900708400410
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Huckfeldt, R. R., & Sprague, J. (1995). Citizens, politics and social communication: Information and influence in an election campaign. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jackson-Beeck, M., & Meadow, R. G. (1979). The triple agenda of presidential debates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 43(2), 173-180. doi: 10.1086/268509
Jacobson, S. (2013). Does audience participation on Facebook influence the news agenda? A case study of The Rachael Maddow Show. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 57(3), 338-355. doi: 10.1080/08838151.2013.816706
Katz, E. (1957). The two-step flow of communication: An up-to-date report on an hypothesis. Public Opinion Quarterly, 21(1), 61-78.
Kim, S-H, Scheufele, D. A, & Shanahan, J. (2002). Think about it this way: Attribute agenda-setting function of the press and the public's evaluation of a local issue. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(1), 7-25. doi: 10.1177/107769900207900102
Kim, S-H, Han, M., Choi, D-H., & Kim, J-N. (2012). Attribute agenda setting, priming and the media’s influence on how to think about a controversial issue. International Communication Gazette, 74(1), 43-59. doi: 10.1177/1748048511426991
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage.
Lazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B., & Gaudet, H. (1948). The people's choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
Lee, B., Lancendorfer, K. M., & Lee, K. J. (2005). Agenda-setting and the Internet: The intermedia influence of Internet bulletin boards on newspaper coverage of the 2000 general election in South Korea. Asian Journal of Communication, 15(1), 57-71. doi: 10.1080/0129298042000329793
Lee, J. K. (2007). The effect of the Internet on homogeneity of the media agenda: A test of the fragmentation thesis. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(4), 745-760. doi: 10.1177/107769900708400406
Livne, A., Simmons, M. P., Adar, E., & Adamic, L. A. (2011). The party is over here: Structure and content in the 2010 election. Proceedings of the Fifth International Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence Conference on Weblogs and Social Media. Barcelona, Spain.
Lowery, S. A., & DeFleur, M. L. (1995). Milestones in mass communication research. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.
McCluskey, M., & Hmielowski, J. (2012). Opinion expression during social conflict: Comparing online reader comments and letters to the editor. Journalism, 13(3), 303-319. doi: 10.1177/1464884911421696
McCombs, M. E., & Shaw D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187. doi: 10.1086/267990
McCombs, M. E. (2005). A look at agenda setting: Past, present, and future. Journalism Studies, 6(4), 543-557. doi: 10.1080/14616700500250438
Mehta, S. (2011). The rise of the Internet electorate. Accessed July 18, 2014 from: http://articles.latimes.com/2011/apr/18/nation/la-na-social-media-20110418
Meraz, S. (2009). Is there an elite hold? Traditional media to social media agenda setting influence in blog networks. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(3), 682-707. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01458.x
Meraz, S. (2011). The fight for ‘How to think’: Traditional media, social networks, and issue interpretation,” Journalism, 12(1), 107-127. doi: 10.1177/1464884910385193
Nisbet, M. C., & Kotcher, J. E. (2009). A two-step flow of influence? Opinion-leader campaigns on climate change. Science Communication, 30(3), 328-354. doi: 10.1177/1075547008328797
Norris, P., & Curtice, J. (2008). Getting the message out: A two-step model of the role of the Internet in campaign communication flows during the 2005 British general election. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 4(4), 3-13. doi: 10.1080/19331680801975359
Petrocik, J. R., Benoit, W.L., & Hansen, G. J. (2003). Issue ownership and presidential campaigning, 1952-2000. Political Science Quarterly, 118(4), 599-626. doi: 10.1002/j.1538-165X.2003.tb00407.x
Pew Research Center. (2012). For voters it’s still the economy: Energy, terrorism, immigration less important than in 2008. Accessed July 1, 2014 from: http://www.people-press.org/2012/09/24/for-voters-its-still-the-economy/
Ragas, M. W., & Kiousis, S. (2010). Intermedia agenda-setting and political activism: MoveOn.org and the 2008 presidential election. Mass Communication and Society, 13(5), 560-583. doi: 10.1080/15205436.2010.515372
Roberts, M, Wanta, W., & Dzwo, T-H. (2002). Agenda setting and issue salience online. Communications Research, 29(4), 452-465. doi: 10.1177/0093650202029004004
Robertson, S. P., Vatrapu, R. K., & Medina, R. (2010). Off the wall political discourse: Facebook use in the 2008 U.S. presidential elections. Information Polity, 15(1/2) 11-31. doi: 10.3233/IP-2010-0196
Robinson, J. P. (1976). Interpersonal influence in election campaigns: Two step-flow hypotheses. Public Opinion Quarterly, 40(3), 304-319. doi: 10.1086/268307
Rogers, E. M., & Dearing, J. W. (1988). Agenda-setting research: Where has it been? Where is it going? In Anderson, J.A. (Ed.). Communication Yearbook 11 (pp. 555-594). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Ruiz, C., Domingo, D., Micó, J. L., Díaz-Noci, J., Meso, K., & Masip, P. (2011). Public sphere 2.0? The democratic qualities of citizen debates in online newspapers. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 16(4), 463-487. doi: 10.1177/1940161211415849
Sartor, T., Matsa, K-E., Vogt, N., Adams, S., Mitchell, A., & Rosenstiel, T. (2012). How the Presidential Candidates Use the Web and Social Media. Accessed August 15, 2013 from: http://www.journalism.org/2012/08/15/how-presidential-candidates-use-web-and-social-media/
Shaw, E. F. (1977). The agenda-setting hypothesis reconsidered: Interpersonal factors. International Communication Gazette, 23(4), 230–240. doi: 10.1177/001654927702300403
Smith, A. (2009). The Internet’s role in campaign 2008. Accessed July 15, 2013 from: http://www.pewinternet.org/2009/04/15/the-internets-role-in-campaign-2008/
Smith, A. (2014). 6 new facts about Facebook. Accessed January 23, 2015 from: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/02/03/6-new-facts-about-facebook/
Sweetser, K. D., & Lariscy, R. W. (2008). Candidates make good friends: An analysis of candidates’ use of Facebook. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 2(3), 175-198. doi:10.1080/15531180802178687
Tan, Y., & Weaver, D. H. (2007). Agenda-setting effects among the media, the public, and Congress, 1946-2004. Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly, 84(4), 729-744. doi: 10.1177/107769900708400405
Trammell, K. D., Williams, A. P., Postelnicu, M., & Landreville, K. D. (2006). Evolution of online campaigning: Increasing interactivity in candidate web sites and blogs through text and technical features. Mass Communication & Society, 9(1), 21-44. doi: 10.1207/s15327825mcs0901_2
Vergeer, M., & Hermans, L. (2008). Analysing online political discussions: Methodological considerations. Javnost, 15(2), 37-55. doi: 10.1080/13183222.2008.11008969
Vitak, J., Zube, P., Smock, A., Carr, C. T., Ellison, N., & Lampe, C. (2011). It’s complicated: Facebook users’ political participation in the 2008 election. CyberPsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(3), 107-114. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2009.0226
Weaver, D. H., Zhu, J. H., & Willnat, L. (1992). The bridging function of interpersonal communication in agenda-setting. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 69(4), 856–867. doi: 10.1177/107769909206900406
Weimann, G. (1994). The influentials: People who influence people. New York: State University of New York Press.
Wilhelm, A.G. (2000). Democracy in the digital age: Challenges to political life in cyberspace. London: Routledge.
Williams, C. B., & Gulati, G. J. (2009) Facebook grows up: An empirical assessment of its role in the 2008 Congressional elections. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association 67th Annual National Conference, Chicago.
Woolley, J. K., Limperos, A. M., & Oliver M. B. (2010). The 2008 presidential election, 2.0: A content analysis of user-generated political Facebook groups. Mass Communication and Society, 13(5), 631-652. doi: 10.1080/15205436.2010.516864
Bond, R. M., Fariss, C. J., Jones, J. J., Kramer, A. D. I., Marlow, C., Settle J. E., & Fowler, J. H. (2012). A 61-million-person experiment in social influence and political mobilization. Nature, 489(7415), 295-298. doi:10.1038/nature11421
Brosius, H-B., & Weimann, G. (1996). Who sets the agenda: Agenda-setting as a two-step flow, Communication Research, 23(5), 561-580. doi: 10.1177/009365096023005002
Camaj, L., & Santana, A. D. (2013). Political Discourse on Facebook during presidential elections: The role of moderator and political ideology for online deliberation. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Washington, DC.
Cha, M., Haddadi, H., Benevenuto, F., & Gummadi, K. P. (2010). Measuring user influence in twitter: The million follower fallacy. Proceedings of the Fourth International Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, Washington, D.C.
Cohen, B. (1963). The press and foreign policy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Dalton, R. J., Beck, P. A., Huckfeldt, R., & Koetzle, W. (1998). A test of media-centered agenda setting: Newspaper content and public interests in a presidential election. Political Communication, 15(4), 463-481. doi: 10.1080/105846098198849
Dearing, J. W., & Rogers, E. M. (1996). Agenda-setting. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fernandes, J., Giurcanu, M., Bowers, K. W., & Neely, J. C. (2010). The writing on the wall: A content analysis of college students' Facebook groups for the 2008 presidential election. Mass Communication and Society, 13(5), 653-675. doi: 10.1080/15205436.2010.516865
Fowler, G. A. (2012). Facebook: One billion and counting. Accessed April 17, 2014 from: http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443635404578036164027386112
Golan, G. J., & Wanta, W. (2001). Second-level agenda setting in the New Hampshire primary: A comparison of coverage in three newspapers and public perceptions of candidates. Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly, 78(2), 247-259. doi: 10.1177/107769900107800203
Golan, G. J., Kiousis, S. K., & McDaniel, M. L. (2007). Second-level agenda setting and political advertising. Journalism Studies, 8(3): 432-443. doi: 10.1080/14616700701276190
Gueorguieva, V. (2008). Voters, MySpace, and YouTube: The impact of alternative communication channels on the 2006 election cycle and beyond. Social Science Computer Review, 26(3), 288-300. doi: 10.1177/0894439307305636
Habermas, J. (2006). The public sphere. In Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit (Eds.), Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Anthology (pp. 103-107). Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.
Hester, J. B., & Dougall, E. (2007). The efficiency of constructed week sampling for content analysis of online news. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(4), 811-824. doi: 10.1177/107769900708400410
Holsti, O. R. (1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Huckfeldt, R. R., & Sprague, J. (1995). Citizens, politics and social communication: Information and influence in an election campaign. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jackson-Beeck, M., & Meadow, R. G. (1979). The triple agenda of presidential debates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 43(2), 173-180. doi: 10.1086/268509
Jacobson, S. (2013). Does audience participation on Facebook influence the news agenda? A case study of The Rachael Maddow Show. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 57(3), 338-355. doi: 10.1080/08838151.2013.816706
Katz, E. (1957). The two-step flow of communication: An up-to-date report on an hypothesis. Public Opinion Quarterly, 21(1), 61-78.
Kim, S-H, Scheufele, D. A, & Shanahan, J. (2002). Think about it this way: Attribute agenda-setting function of the press and the public's evaluation of a local issue. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(1), 7-25. doi: 10.1177/107769900207900102
Kim, S-H, Han, M., Choi, D-H., & Kim, J-N. (2012). Attribute agenda setting, priming and the media’s influence on how to think about a controversial issue. International Communication Gazette, 74(1), 43-59. doi: 10.1177/1748048511426991
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage.
Lazarsfeld, P. F., Berelson, B., & Gaudet, H. (1948). The people's choice: How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
Lee, B., Lancendorfer, K. M., & Lee, K. J. (2005). Agenda-setting and the Internet: The intermedia influence of Internet bulletin boards on newspaper coverage of the 2000 general election in South Korea. Asian Journal of Communication, 15(1), 57-71. doi: 10.1080/0129298042000329793
Lee, J. K. (2007). The effect of the Internet on homogeneity of the media agenda: A test of the fragmentation thesis. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(4), 745-760. doi: 10.1177/107769900708400406
Livne, A., Simmons, M. P., Adar, E., & Adamic, L. A. (2011). The party is over here: Structure and content in the 2010 election. Proceedings of the Fifth International Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence Conference on Weblogs and Social Media. Barcelona, Spain.
Lowery, S. A., & DeFleur, M. L. (1995). Milestones in mass communication research. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.
McCluskey, M., & Hmielowski, J. (2012). Opinion expression during social conflict: Comparing online reader comments and letters to the editor. Journalism, 13(3), 303-319. doi: 10.1177/1464884911421696
McCombs, M. E., & Shaw D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176-187. doi: 10.1086/267990
McCombs, M. E. (2005). A look at agenda setting: Past, present, and future. Journalism Studies, 6(4), 543-557. doi: 10.1080/14616700500250438
Mehta, S. (2011). The rise of the Internet electorate. Accessed July 18, 2014 from: http://articles.latimes.com/2011/apr/18/nation/la-na-social-media-20110418
Meraz, S. (2009). Is there an elite hold? Traditional media to social media agenda setting influence in blog networks. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(3), 682-707. doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2009.01458.x
Meraz, S. (2011). The fight for ‘How to think’: Traditional media, social networks, and issue interpretation,” Journalism, 12(1), 107-127. doi: 10.1177/1464884910385193
Nisbet, M. C., & Kotcher, J. E. (2009). A two-step flow of influence? Opinion-leader campaigns on climate change. Science Communication, 30(3), 328-354. doi: 10.1177/1075547008328797
Norris, P., & Curtice, J. (2008). Getting the message out: A two-step model of the role of the Internet in campaign communication flows during the 2005 British general election. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 4(4), 3-13. doi: 10.1080/19331680801975359
Petrocik, J. R., Benoit, W.L., & Hansen, G. J. (2003). Issue ownership and presidential campaigning, 1952-2000. Political Science Quarterly, 118(4), 599-626. doi: 10.1002/j.1538-165X.2003.tb00407.x
Pew Research Center. (2012). For voters it’s still the economy: Energy, terrorism, immigration less important than in 2008. Accessed July 1, 2014 from: http://www.people-press.org/2012/09/24/for-voters-its-still-the-economy/
Ragas, M. W., & Kiousis, S. (2010). Intermedia agenda-setting and political activism: MoveOn.org and the 2008 presidential election. Mass Communication and Society, 13(5), 560-583. doi: 10.1080/15205436.2010.515372
Roberts, M, Wanta, W., & Dzwo, T-H. (2002). Agenda setting and issue salience online. Communications Research, 29(4), 452-465. doi: 10.1177/0093650202029004004
Robertson, S. P., Vatrapu, R. K., & Medina, R. (2010). Off the wall political discourse: Facebook use in the 2008 U.S. presidential elections. Information Polity, 15(1/2) 11-31. doi: 10.3233/IP-2010-0196
Robinson, J. P. (1976). Interpersonal influence in election campaigns: Two step-flow hypotheses. Public Opinion Quarterly, 40(3), 304-319. doi: 10.1086/268307
Rogers, E. M., & Dearing, J. W. (1988). Agenda-setting research: Where has it been? Where is it going? In Anderson, J.A. (Ed.). Communication Yearbook 11 (pp. 555-594). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Ruiz, C., Domingo, D., Micó, J. L., Díaz-Noci, J., Meso, K., & Masip, P. (2011). Public sphere 2.0? The democratic qualities of citizen debates in online newspapers. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 16(4), 463-487. doi: 10.1177/1940161211415849
Sartor, T., Matsa, K-E., Vogt, N., Adams, S., Mitchell, A., & Rosenstiel, T. (2012). How the Presidential Candidates Use the Web and Social Media. Accessed August 15, 2013 from: http://www.journalism.org/2012/08/15/how-presidential-candidates-use-web-and-social-media/
Shaw, E. F. (1977). The agenda-setting hypothesis reconsidered: Interpersonal factors. International Communication Gazette, 23(4), 230–240. doi: 10.1177/001654927702300403
Smith, A. (2009). The Internet’s role in campaign 2008. Accessed July 15, 2013 from: http://www.pewinternet.org/2009/04/15/the-internets-role-in-campaign-2008/
Smith, A. (2014). 6 new facts about Facebook. Accessed January 23, 2015 from: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/02/03/6-new-facts-about-facebook/
Sweetser, K. D., & Lariscy, R. W. (2008). Candidates make good friends: An analysis of candidates’ use of Facebook. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 2(3), 175-198. doi:10.1080/15531180802178687
Tan, Y., & Weaver, D. H. (2007). Agenda-setting effects among the media, the public, and Congress, 1946-2004. Journalism & Mass Communications Quarterly, 84(4), 729-744. doi: 10.1177/107769900708400405
Trammell, K. D., Williams, A. P., Postelnicu, M., & Landreville, K. D. (2006). Evolution of online campaigning: Increasing interactivity in candidate web sites and blogs through text and technical features. Mass Communication & Society, 9(1), 21-44. doi: 10.1207/s15327825mcs0901_2
Vergeer, M., & Hermans, L. (2008). Analysing online political discussions: Methodological considerations. Javnost, 15(2), 37-55. doi: 10.1080/13183222.2008.11008969
Vitak, J., Zube, P., Smock, A., Carr, C. T., Ellison, N., & Lampe, C. (2011). It’s complicated: Facebook users’ political participation in the 2008 election. CyberPsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(3), 107-114. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2009.0226
Weaver, D. H., Zhu, J. H., & Willnat, L. (1992). The bridging function of interpersonal communication in agenda-setting. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 69(4), 856–867. doi: 10.1177/107769909206900406
Weimann, G. (1994). The influentials: People who influence people. New York: State University of New York Press.
Wilhelm, A.G. (2000). Democracy in the digital age: Challenges to political life in cyberspace. London: Routledge.
Williams, C. B., & Gulati, G. J. (2009) Facebook grows up: An empirical assessment of its role in the 2008 Congressional elections. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association 67th Annual National Conference, Chicago.
Woolley, J. K., Limperos, A. M., & Oliver M. B. (2010). The 2008 presidential election, 2.0: A content analysis of user-generated political Facebook groups. Mass Communication and Society, 13(5), 631-652. doi: 10.1080/15205436.2010.516864
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