Cyberbullying and social media communication

Spiral of silence, relational aggression and Schadenfreude

Authors

  • Carolyn A. Lin University of Connecticut
  • Xiaowen Xu Butler University

Keywords:

communication competency, cyberbullying, relational aggression, spiral of silence, uses and gratifications

Abstract

Extant literature has identified cyberbullying tactics and consequences as well as school- and community-based anti-bullying strategies and policies. However, research that explains bullying behavior from a communication perspective in a social network via social media platforms is still lacking. This work theorizes cyberbullying as a relational communication behavior by proposing a conceptual framework that integrates the theories and constructs of bystander behavior, spiral of silence, relational aggression, uses and gratifications, and communication competency. Based on the analysis, synthesis and theorization, a set of research propositions and empirical study designs is presented to help guide future research.

References

Allen, K. P. (2012). Off the radar and ubiquitous: Text messaging and its relationship to ‘drama’ and cyberbullying in an affluent, academically rigorous US high school. Journal of Youth Studies,15(1), 99–117.

Baker, C., & Helm, S. (2010). Pacific youth and shifting thresholds: Understanding teen dating violence in Hawai‘i. Journal of School Violence, 9(2), 154–173.

Bastiaensens, S., Vandebosch, H., Poels, K., Van Cleemput, K., DeSmet, A., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2014). Cyberbullying on social network sites. An experimental study into bystanders’ behavioural intentions to help the victim or reinforce the bully. Computers in Human Behaviour, 31, 259–271.

Bastiaensens, S., Vandebosch, H., Poels, K., Van Cleemput, K., DeSmet, A., & De Bourdeaudhuij, I. (2015) ‘Can I afford to help?’ How affordances of communication modalities guide bystanders' helping intentions towards harassment on social network sites, Behaviour & Information Technology, 34(4), 425-435. doi: 10.1080/0144929X.2014.983979.

Baruh, L.(2010). Mediated voyeurism and the guilty pleasure of consuming reality television. Media Psychology, 13, 201–221.

Barlett, C., and Coyne, S. M. (2014). A meta-analysis of sex differences in cyberbullying behavior: The moderating role of age. Aggressive Behavior, 40, 474–488.

Best, P., Manktelow, R., & Taylor, B. (2014). Online communication, social media and adolescent wellbeing: A systematic narrative review. Children and Youth Services Review, 41, 27-36.

Blackstone, S., Williams, M. B., & Wilkins, D. P. (2007). Key principles underlying research and practice in AAC. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 23, 191–203. doi:10.1080/07434610701553684.

Blumler, J. G. (1979). The role of theory in uses and gratifications studies. Communication Research, 6(1), 9-36.

boyd, d. (2014). It’s complicated: The social lives of networked teens. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Brodi, N. & Vangelisti A. (2016). Bystander intervention in cyberbullying. Communication Monographs. 83, 94-119.

Burgess-Proctor, A., Patchin, J. W., Hinduja, S. (2010). Cyberbullying and online harassment: Reconceptualizing the victimization of adolescent girls. In Garcia, V., Clifford, J. (Eds.), Female crime victims: Reality reconsidered (pp. 162–176). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Cassidy, W., Faucher, C., & Jackson, M. (2013). Cyberbullying among youth: A comprehensive review of current international research and its implications and application to policy and practice. School Psychology International, 34(6), 575–612.

Chen, S., Ho, S. S., & Lwin, M. O. (2017). A meta-analysis of factors predicting cyberbullying perpetration and victimization: From the social cognitive and media effects approach. New Media & Society, 19(8) 1194–1213.

Coyne, S. M., Robinson, S. L., & Nelson, D. A. (2010). Does reality backbite? Physical, verbal, and relational aggression in reality television programs. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 282-298.

Cross, D., Barnes, A. Papageorgiou, A., Hadwen, K., Hearn, L., & Lester, L. (2015). A social–ecological framework for understanding and reducing cyberbullying behaviours, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 23, 109-117. doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.016.

Diliberti, M., Jackson, M., Correa, S., Padgett, Z. (2019). Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public Schools: Findings From the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2017–18 First Look. NCES 2019-061, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2019/2019061.pdf

Ekşi, F. (2012). Examination of narcissistic personality traits' predicting level of internet addiction and cyber bullying through path analysis, Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 12(3), 1694-1706.

Englander, E., Donnerstein, E., Kowalski, R., Lin, C. A., & Parti, K. (2017). Defining Cyberbullying. Pediatrics, Supplement. doi: 10.1542/peds.2016-1758U.

Escortell R., Aparisi D., Martínez-Monteagudo M. C., Delgado B. (2020). Personality Traits and Aggression as Explanatory Variables of Cyberbullying in Spanish Preadolescents. International Journal of

Environmental Research & Public Health, 17(16), 5705. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17165705.

Farrell, M. (1999). Bullying: A case for early intervention. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Law and Education, 4(1),40–46.

Faverio, M. & Sidoti, O. (2024). YouTube, TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat remain widely used among teens; some say they are on these sites almost constantly. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2024/12/12/teens-social-media-and-technology-2024/.

Festl, R., & Quandt, T. (2013). Social relations and cyberbullying: The influence of individual and structural attributes on victimization and perpetration via the Internet. Human Communication Research, 39, 101–126.

Freis, S. D., & Gurung, R. A. R. (2013). A Facebook analysis of helping behavior in online bullying. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2(1), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030239

Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative description of personality: The big-five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216-1229.

Goodboy, A., Martin, M., & Goldman, Z. (2016). Students’ Experiences of Bullying in High School and Their Adjustment and Motivation During the First Semester of College. Western Journal of Communication, 80(1), 60-78. doi:0.1080/10570314.2015.1078494

González-Alonso, F., Guillén-Gámez, F. D. & de Castro-Hernández R. (2020). Methodological analysis of the effect of an anti-bullying programme in secondary education through communicative competence: A pre-test-post-test study with a control-experimental group. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 3047. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17093047.

Hall, A. (2006). Viewers' perceptions of reality programs. Communication Quarterly, 54(2), 191-211.

Hawkins, L. D., D. Pepler, & Craig, W. (2001). Naturalistic observations of peer interventions in bullying, Social Development, 10(4): 512–527. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00178.

Hayes, A. F. (2007). Exploring the forms of self-censorship: On the spiral of silence and the use of opinion expression avoidance strategies. Journal of Communication, 57, 785–802.

Haynie, D. L., Nansel, T., Eitel, P., Davis-Crump, A., Saylor, K., Yu, K., & Simons-Morton, B. (2001). Bullies, victims, and bully/victims: Distinct groups of at risk youth. Journal of Early Adolescence, 21, 29–49.

Heirman, W., & Walrave, M. (2008). Assessing concerns and issues about the mediation of technology in cyberbullying. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 2(2), http://cyberpsychology.eu/view.php?cisloclanku=2008111401&article=1>.

Hong, J., & Park, H. S. (2011). User ratings and willingness to express opinions online. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 3(2), 1–15.

Hunt, J. (2011, February). Bullying should not be a teenage rite of passage five ways we can end discrimination and harassment against gay and transgender youth in schools. Center for American Progress.

Jones, S. (2017, September 27). Mitigating the effects of cyberbullying. American Bar Association. https://www.americanbar.org/groups/litigation/committees/ minority-trial-lawyer/practice/2017/mitigating-effects-of-cyberbullying.html.

Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media. Business horizons, 53(1), 59-68.

Katz, E., Blumler, J., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). Uses of mass communication by the individual. In W.P. Davison, & F.T.C. Yu (Eds.), Mass communication research: Major issues and future directions (pp. 11-35). New York: Praeger.

Kim, J. W. (2014). Scan and click: The uses and gratifications of social recommendation system. Computers in Human Behavior, 33, 184–191.

Knauf, R., Eschenbeck, H., & Hock, M. (2018). Bystanders of bullying: Social-cognitive and affective reactions to school bullying and cyberbullying. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 12(4), Article 3. doi:10.5817/CP2018-4-3.

Knox, E., & Conti-Ramsden, G. (2003). Bullying risks of 11-year-old children with specific language impairment (SLI): Does school placement matter? International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 38(1), 1–12.

Light, J. (1989). Toward a definition of communicative competence for individuals using augmentative and alternative communication systems. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 5, 137–144.

Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2014). Communicative competence for individuals who require augmentative and alternative communication: A new definition for a new era of communication? Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 30(1), 1-18. doi: 10.3109/07434618.2014.885080.

Lin, C. A. (1993). Modeling the gratification seeking process of television viewing. Human Communication Research, 20, 251-271.

Lin, C. A., & Salwen, M. B. (1997). Predicting the spiral of silence on a controversial public issue. Howard Journal of Communications, 8, 129-142.

Lin, C. A. & Rauschnabel, P. A. (2016). Social media platforms as marketing channels. In I. Lee (Ed.), Encyclopedia of E-Commerce Development, Implementation, and Management (pp. 2144-2158). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Lonigro, A., Schneider, B. H., Laghi, F., Baiocco, R., Pallini, S., & Brunner, T. (2015). Is cyberbullying related to trait or state anger? Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 46, 445–454.

Lynch, J. (2018, January 24). Police accuse two students, age 12, of cyberbullying in suicide. https://www.cnn.com/2018/01/23/us/florida-cyberstalking-charges-girl-suicide/index.html.

Luce-Kapler, R., Sumara, D., & Iftody, T. (2010). Teaching ethical know-how in new literacy spaces. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Education, 53(7), 536-541.

Machackova, H. & Pfetsch, J. (2016). Bystanders’ responses to offline bullying and cyberbullying: The role of empathy and normative beliefs about aggression. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 57, 169–176.

Mantymaki, M., & Islam, A. K. M. (2014). Voyeurism and exhibitionism as gratifications from prosuming social networking sites. Proceedings of the European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS) 2014, Tel Aviv, Israel. http://aisel.aisnet.org/ecis2014/proceedings/track01/3 (accessed on March 10, 2019).

Marín-López, I., Zych, I., Ortega-Ruiz, R., Hunter, S. C., & Llorent, V. J. (2020). Relations among online emotional content use, social and emotional competencies and cyberbullying. Children and youth services review, 108, 104647.

Mason, K. (2008). Cyberbullying: A preliminary assessment for school personnel. Psychology in the Schools, 45(4), 323-348.

Masullo, G. M., Lu, S., & Fadnis, D. (2021). Does online incivility cancel out the spiral of silence? A moderated mediation model of willingness to speak out. New Media & Society, 23(11), 3391-3414.

McDevitt, M., Kiousis, S., & Wahl-Jorgensen, K. (2003). Spiral of moderation: Opinion expression in computer-mediated communication. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 15, 454–470.

Marwick, A. E. & boyd, d. (2011). The drama! Teen conflict, gossip, and bullying in networked publics [Paper presentation]. A Decade in Internet Time: Symposium on the Dynamics of the Internet and Society. Oxford Internet Institute, Oxford, UK.

Marwick, A., & boyd, d. (2014). ‘It's just drama’: teen perspectives on conflict and aggression in a networked era. Journal of Youth Studies, 17(9), 1187-1204.

Mishna, F., Regehr, C., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Daciuk, J., Fearing, G., & Van Wert, M. (2018). Social media, cyber-aggression and student mental health on a university campus. Journal of Mental Health, 1-8.

Mitsopoulou, E. & Giovazolias, T. (2015). Personality traits, empathy and bullying behavior: A meta-analytic approach. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 21, 61-72, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.01.007.

Moscovici, S. (1991). Silent majorities and loud minorities." Communication Yearbook, 14, 298-308.

Müller, C. R., Pfetsch, J., & Ittel, A. (2014). Ethical media competence as a protective factor against cyberbullying and cybervictimization among German school students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 644-651.

Nabi, R. L., Stitt, C. R., Halford, J., & Finnerty, K. L. (2006). Emotional and cognitive predictors of the enjoyment of reality-based and fictional television programming: An elaboration of the uses and gratifications perspective. Media Psychology, 8(4), 421-447.

Noelle‐Neumann, E. (1974). The spiral of silence a theory of public opinion. Journal of Communication, 24(2), 43-51.

Olweus, A. and Limber P. (2017). Some problem with cyberbullying research. Current Opinion in Psychology, 19, 139-143. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.04.012.

Paluck, E. L., & Shepherd, H. (2012). The salience of social referents: A field experiment on collective norms and harassment behavior in a school social network. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 899-915. doi: 10.1037/a0030015.

Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2), 148–169.

Pearson, C. M., Andersson, L. M., & Porath, C. L. (2005). Workplace incivility. In S. Fox & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive Work Behavior: Investigations of Actors and Targets (pp. 177–200). doi:10.1037/10893-008.

Pempek, T. A., Yermolayeva, Y. A., & Calvert, S. L. (2009). College students' social networking experiences on Facebook. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30(3), 227-238.

Persaud, A. (2017). Cyberbullying or Drama? What’s the difference and why does it matter: Links, Labels, and Management Strategies for Cyberbullying. University of Toronto. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/77147.

Platt, C.A., Raile, A. N.W. & Burnett, A. (2016). Strategically mean: Extending the study of relational aggression in communication, Annals of the International Communication Association, 40(1), 151-172. doi: 10.1080/23808985.2015.11735259.

Porhola, M, Karhunen, S., and Rainivaar, S. (2006). Bullying at school and in the workplace: A challenge for communication research. Annals of the International Communication Association, 30(1).

Pornari, C. D., & Wood, J. (2010). Peer and cyber aggression in secondary school students: The role of moral disengagement, hostile attribution bias, and outcome expectancies. Aggressive Behavior, 36, 81–94.

Rębisz, S., Jasińska-Maciążek, A., Grygiel, P., & Dolata, R. (2023). Psycho-social correlates of cyberbullying among Polish adolescents. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(8), 5521.

Rendsvig, R.K. (2014). Pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect: informational dynamics of unresponsive witnesses in situations calling for intervention. Syntheses, 191, 2471–2498. doi: 10.1007/s11229-014-0435-0.

Rivers, I. (2001). The bullying of sexual minorities at school: Its nature and long-term correlates. Educational and Child Psychology, 18, 32–46.

Rubin, A.M. (1993). Audience activity and media use. Communication Monograph, 60, 98-105.

Salmivalli, C., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Kaukiainen, A. (1996). Bullying as a group process: Participant roles and their relations to social status within the group. Aggressive Behavior, 22, 1-15. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1996)22:1<1::AID-AB1>3.0.CO;2-T.

Salwen, M. B., Lin, C. A., & Matera, F. (1994). Willingness to discuss 'official English': A test of three communities. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 71, 282-290.

Schafer, M., Korn ,S., Smith, K., Hunter, C., Mora-Merchan, A., Singer, M., & vander Meulen, K. (2004). Lonely in the crowd: Recollections of bullying. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 22, 379–394. doi:10.1348=0261510041552756

Schultze-Krumbholz, A., Hess, M., Pfetsch, J., & Scheithauer, H. (2018). Who is involved in cyberbullying? Latent class analysis of cyberbullying roles and their associations with aggression, self-esteem, and empathy. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 12(4), Article 2. doi:10.5817/CP2018-4-2.

Schultze‐Krumbholz, A., Schultze, M., Zagorscak, P., Wölfer, R., & Scheithauer, H. (2016). Feeling cybervictims’ pain—The effect of empathy training on cyberbullying. Aggressive behavior, 42(2), 147-156. doi: 10.1002/ab.21613.

Schutz, W.C. (1966). The Interpersonal Underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.

Schneider, S. K., O’Donnell, L., Stueve, A., & Coulter, R.W. S. (2012). Cyberbullying, school bullying, and psychological distress: A regional census of high school students. American Journal of Public Health, 102(1), 171–177.

Selkie, E. M.; Kota, Rajitha; Moreno, M. (2016). Cyberbullying Behaviors Among Female College Students: Witnessing, Perpetration, and Victimization. College Student Journal, 50(2), 278-287.

Semerci, A. (2017). Investigating the effects of personality traits on cyberbullying. Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 7(2), 211–230. https://doi.org/10.14527/pegegog.2017.008

Shultz, E., Heilman, R., & Hart, K. J. (2014). Cyber-bullying: An exploration of bystander behavior and motivation. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 8(4), article 3. doi:10.5817/CP2014-4-3.

Smith, A. C., Fritz, P. A. T., & Daskaluk, S. (2018). “Drama” in interpersonal conflict and interactions among emerging adults: A qualitative focus group study. Emerging Adulthood, 1-11. doi: 10.1177/2167696818792989.

Snakenborg, R., Van Acker J. & Gable R. (2011). Cyberbullying: prevention and Intervention to Protect our Children and Youth. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 55(2), 88-95. doi:10.1080/1045988X.2011.539454.

Spitzberg, B. H. (2006). Preliminary Development of a Model and Measure of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) Competence. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11, 629–666. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00030.x.

Spitzberg, B. H., & Cupach, W. R. (1984). Interpersonal Communication Competence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Stanek, L. (2016). Online hate, how do we understand it and how do we approach it. The Friedrich Ebert Foundation in Budapest. http://www.fesbp.hu/common/pdf/ Hate_Speech_Stanek_20160519.pdf.

Tokunaga, R. S. (2010). Following you home from school: a critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 277–287.

Tsay-Vogel, M., & Krakowiak, K. M. (2017). Exploring viewers’ responses to nine reality TV subgenres. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 6(4), 348-360.

Van Cleemput, K., Vandebosch, H. & Pabian, S. (2014). Personal characteristics and contextual factors that determine “helping”, “joining in”, and “doing nothing” when witnessing cyberbullying. Aggressive Behavior, 40, 383–396.

van Geel, M., Goemans, A., Toprak, F., & Vedder, P. (2016). Which personality traits are related to traditional bullying and cyberbullying? A study with the Big Five, Dark Triad and sadism, Personality and Individual Differences, 106, 231-235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.063

Van Hee, C., Jacobs, G., Emmery, C., Desmet, B., Lefever, E., Verhoeven, B., De Pauw, G., Daelemans, W., & Hoste, V. (2018). Automatic detection of cyberbullying in social media text. PLoS ONE 13(10): e0203794. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203794.

Wang, M., Hmielowski, J., Hutchens, M., and Beam, M. (2017). Extending the spiral of silence: partisan media, perceived support, and sharing opinions online. Journal of Information Technology and Politics, 14(3), 248-262.

Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Luk, J.W. (2010). Bullying victimization among underweight and overweight U. S. youth: Differential associations for boys and girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47(1), 99–101.

Whiting, A., & Williams, D. (2013). Why people use social media: a uses and gratifications approach. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal 16(4), 362-369.

Willford, A. (2016). Predictions of cyberbullying intervention among elementary school staff: the moderating effect of staff status. Psychology in the School, 53(10), 1032-1044.

Wu, T., Xu, X., & Atkin, D. (2020). The alternatives to being silent: Exploring

opinion expression avoidance strategies for discussing politics on Facebook. Internet Research, 30(6), 1709-1729.

Ybarra, M. L., Mitchell, K. J., & Espelage, D. L. (2012). Comparisons of bully and unwanted sexual experiences online and offline among a national sample of youth. In O. Ozdemir (Ed.), Complementary Pediatrics. InTech. http://www.intechopen.com/books/complementary-pediatrics/comparisons-of-bully-and-unwanted-sexual-experiencesonline-and-offline-among-a-national-sample-of-y.

You, L. & Lee, Y-H. (2019). The bystander effect in cyberbullying on social network sites: Anonymity, group size, and intervention intentions. Telematics and Informatics, 45, doi:10.1016/j.tele.2019.101284.

Young, R., Len-Rios, M., & Young, H. (2017). Romantic motivations for social media use, social comparison, and online aggression among adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 385-395.

Zerback, T. & Fawzi, N. (2017). Can online exemplars trigger a spiral of silence? Examining the effect of exemplar opinions on perceptions of public opinion and speaking out. New Media & Society, 19(7), 1034-1051.

Zhang, Y., Tang. L. S-T., & Leung, L. (2011). Gratifications, collective self-esteem, online emotional openness, and trait like communication apprehension as predictors of Facebook uses. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,14(12), 733-739.

Zhou, Y., Zheng, W. & Gao, X. (2019). The relationship between the big five and cyberbullying among college students: the mediating effect of moral disengagement. Current Psychology, 38, 1162–1173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-018-0005-6

Downloads

Published

2024-12-31