A Mixed Methods Examination of 21st Century Hiring Processes, Social Networking Sites, and Implicit Bias
Keywords:
Advertising, social networking sites (SNSs), LinkedIn, impression formation, implicit bias, third person effectAbstract
General U.S. hiring practices have evolved with the emergence of online social networking sites (SNSs) despite a lag in formal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission mandates. This mixed methods study examines hiring professionals’ use of SNSs in hiring determinations across a variety of industries as well as within advertising agencies specifically. The latter of which focuses primarily on hiring procedures for account executives. Online survey data from 300 hiring professionals demonstrate reliance upon SNSs during various stages of the hiring process for candidate hiring and rejection, and interview data from 12 agency hiring professionals across the U.S. reveal similar findings in the ad industry. Within the ad industry, which is actively trying to recruit and retain a diverse workforce, a shift appears to have occurred away from hiring professionals’ explicit biases to implicit biases against racial and ethnic minority candidates whose demographic information is often publicly displayed via their digital footprints. Managerial implications for impression formation, implicit bias, and third person effects in the hiring and retention of minority employees in the ad industry are discussed.
References
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Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1995). Implicit gender stereotyping in judgments of fame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 181-198.
Bello, J. D. (2004). Attractiveness as hiring criteria: Savvy business practice or racial discrimination? The Journal of Gender, Race, and Justice, 8(2), 483-506.
Bendick, M. Jr., & Egan, M. (2009). Research perspectives on race and employment in the advertising industry. Bendick and Egan Economic Consultants, Washington, DC.
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? An experiment on labor market discrimination. The American Economic Review, 95(4), 991-1013.
Bertrand, M., Chugh, D., & Mullainathan, S. (2005). Implicit discrimination. The American Economic Review, 95(2), 94-98.
Blair, I. V., Chapleau, K. M., & Judd, C. M. (2005). The use of Afrocentric features as cues for judgment in the presence of diagnostic information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35(1), 59-68.
Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., & Chapleau, K. M. (2004). The influence of Afrocentric facial features in criminal sentencing. Psychological Science, 15(10), 674-679.
Boles, M. (2006). The fundamental reason ad agencies lack diversity. Seldom TYPQL. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1ygftxK
Branscombe, N. R. & Smith, E. R. (1990). Gender and racial stereotypes in impression formation and social decision-making processes. Sex Roles, 22(9), 627-647.
Brewer, M. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brosius, H. & Engel, D. (1996). The causes of third-person effects: unrealistic optimism, impersonal impact, or generalized negative attitudes towards media influence? International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 8(2), 142-162.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2013). Labor force statistics from the current population survey. Retrieved from http://1.usa.gov/1vRJHEr
Caers, R. & Castelyns, V. (2011). LinkedIn and Facebook in Belgium: The influences and biases of social network sites in recruitment and selection procedures. Social Science Computer Review, 29(4), 437-448.
Chambers, J. (2008). Madison Avenue and the color line. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press,
Chugh, D. (2004). Why milliseconds matter: Societal and managerial implications of implicit social cognition. Social Justice Research, 17(2), 203-222.
Cloutier, J., Mason, M. F., & Macrae, C. N. (2005). The perceptual determinants of person construal: Reopening the social-cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(6), 885-894.
Cohen, J., & Davis, R. G. (1991). Third-person effects and the differential impact in negative political advertising. Journalism Quarterly, 68(4), 680-688.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2010). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Davison, W. P. (1983). The third-person effect in communication. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 1-15.
Davison, H., Maraist, C., & Bing, M. (2011). Friend or foe? The promise and pitfalls of using social networking sites for HR decisions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 26(2), 153-159.
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5-18.
Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285-290.
Dixon, T. L. (2008). Network news and racial beliefs: Exploring the connection between national television news exposure and stereotypical perceptions of African Americans. Journal of Communication, 58(2), 321-337.
Duggan, M., & Smith, A. (2013). Demographics of key social networking platforms. Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from http://pewrsr.ch/1dgadzL
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eMarketer. (2014). Total US ad spending to see largest increase since 2004. Retrieved from http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Total-US-Ad-Spending-See-Largest-Increase-Since-2004/1010982
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Fox, Z. (2012, Aug 7). Not on Facebook? Employers, psychiatrists may think you’re a psychopath. Mashable. Retrieved from http://on.mash.to/1w12D7w
Gawronski, B., Gehske, D., & Banse, R. (2003). Implicit bias in impression formation: Associations influence the construal of individuating information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 573-589.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4-27.
Greenwald, A. G., Klinger, M. R., & Liu, T. J. (1989). Unconscious processing of dichoptically masked words. Memory & Cognition, 17(1), 35-47.
Grier. S. A., & Brumbaugh, A. M. (1999). Noticing cultural differences: Ad meanings created by target and non-target markets. Journal of Advertising, 28 (1), 79-93.
Gross, D. (2012). Are social media making the résumé obsolete? CNN. Retrieved from http://cnn.it/1AcKyl3
Hamilton, D. L., Sherman, S. J., & Ruvolo, C.M. (1990). Stereotype-based expectancies: Effects on information processing and social behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 46(2), 35-60.
Hampton, K. N., Goulet, L. S., Rainie, L., & Purcell, K. (2011). Social networking sites and our lives. Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2011/06/16/part-2-who-are-social-networking-site-users/
Humphreys, J. (2013, September 4). Minority buying power up in 2013, according to UGA Multicultural Economy study. UGA Today [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1vedC6H
Keitel, L. (2012, Oct. 29). Unleash Your potential: Resume still an important tool. Times-Herald Record. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1rSAH4l.
Kluemper, D. H. (2013). Social network screening: pitfalls, possibilities, and parallels in employment selection. In Bondarouk, T. and Olivas-Lujan, M. (Eds.), Advanced Series in Management, Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, Bingly, pp. 1-21.
Kluemper, D. H., & Rosen, P. A. (2009). Future employment selection methods: evaluating social networking web sites. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 24(6), 567-580.
Kunda, Z., Sinclair, L., & Griffin, D. (1997). Equal ratings but separate meanings: Stereotypes and the construals of traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(4), 720-734.
Lampel, A. K., & Anderson, N. H. (1968). Combining visual and verbal information in an impression-formation task. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9(1), 1-6.
Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. (2002). Qualitative communication research methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93-120.
Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(5), 808-817.
Macrae, C. N. & Martin, D. (2007). A boy primed Sue: Feature-based processing and person construal. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 793-805.
Marlowe, C. M., Schneider, S. L., & Nelson, C. E. (1996). Gender and attractiveness biases in hiring decisions: Are more experienced managers less biased. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(1), 11-21.
Martin, D. & Macrae, C. N. (2007). A face with a cue: Exploring the inevitability of person categorization. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 806-816.
Miller, A. G. (1970). Role of physical attractiveness in impression formation. Psychonomic Science, 19(4), 241-243.
Monteith, M. J., Sherman, J. W., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Suppression as stereotype control strategy. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 63-82.
Morris, M., & Fiske, S. (2009). The new face of workplace discrimination. Forbes. Retrieved from http://onforb.es/1viK7FP
NAACP. (2010). NAACP takes on ad companies with Madison Avenue Project. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1vefdcD
Newsroom. (2014, October 28). Facebook. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1g5Ztpx
Nisen, M. (2013). Moneyball at work: They've discovered what really makes a great employee. Retrieved from http://read.bi/1bA7tMK
Petri, A. (2012, August 8). The Facebook psychosis. Washington Post. Retrieved from http://wapo.st/1FLGaMT
Perloff, R.M. (2009). Mass media, social perception, and the third-person effect. In J. Bryant and M.B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research: pp. 252-268.
Roberts, S. (2008, August 14). Minorities in U.S. set to become majority by 2042. New York Times. Retrieved from http://nyti.ms/1rVRQ7x
Rose, M.M. (2007). Advertising industry working fast to boost minority hiring, increase internships. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1CCDK4Z
Schawbel, D. (2011). 5 reasons why your online presence will replace your resume in 10 years. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/danschawbel/2011/02/21/5-reasons-why-your-online-presence-will-replace-your-resume-in-10-years/#6d333cfd2c65
Silverman, R. (2012, Jan 4). No more résumés, say some firms. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://on.wsj.com/1FKlUcA
Social media is part of today’s workplace but its use may raise employment discrimination concerns. (2014, March 12). EEOC website [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://1.usa.gov/1ozNkZU
Statistics. (2014, October 28). YouTube. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1jJRc8O
Swallow, E. (2011, Oct. 23). How recruiters use social networks to screen candidates. Mashable. Retrieved from http://on.mash.to/15O4pxm
Target Market News (2012). Survey contrasts perceptions between multicultural and white ad professionals. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1CCFefD
Texeira, E. (2006). Ad agencies look to recruit minorities. Washington Post. Retrieved from http://wapo.st/1FLHxeC
Thompson, W. C., Fong, G. T., & Rosenhan, D. L. (1981). Inadmissible evidence and juror verdicts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(3), 453-463.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2012). Prohibited Practices. Retrieved from http://1.usa.gov/1zMKxTX
Van Der Heide, B., D’Angelo, J. D., & Schumaker, E. M. (2012). The effects of verbal versus photographic self-presentation on impression formation in Facebook. Journal of Communication, 62(1), 98-116.
Watch the Full Length Film. (2010). The Pursuit of Passion: Diversity in advertising website. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1BaxPmd
Wegner, D. M., Coulton, G. F., & Wenzlaff, R. (1985). The transparency of denial: Briefing in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,49(2), 338-346.
Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(1), 5-13
Weichselbaumer, D. (2003). Sexual orientation discrimination in hiring. Labour Economics, 10, 629-642.
Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2006). Mass media research: An introduction. (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Yin, R. K. (2012). Applications of case study research. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Zide, J., Elman, B., & Shahani-Denning, C. (2014). LinkedIn and recruitment: How profiles differ across occupations. Employee Relations, 36(5), 583-604.
About LinkedIn. (2014). LinkedIn. Retrieved from http://linkd.in/1acYPQC
About TrustedID’s Reppler. (2013). Reppler website. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1rSAxK8
Allport, G.W. (1958). The nature of prejudice. Garden City, NY: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Bar, M., Neta, M., & Linz, H. (2006). Very first impressions. Emotion, 6(2), 269-278.
Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1995). Implicit gender stereotyping in judgments of fame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(2), 181-198.
Bello, J. D. (2004). Attractiveness as hiring criteria: Savvy business practice or racial discrimination? The Journal of Gender, Race, and Justice, 8(2), 483-506.
Bendick, M. Jr., & Egan, M. (2009). Research perspectives on race and employment in the advertising industry. Bendick and Egan Economic Consultants, Washington, DC.
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? An experiment on labor market discrimination. The American Economic Review, 95(4), 991-1013.
Bertrand, M., Chugh, D., & Mullainathan, S. (2005). Implicit discrimination. The American Economic Review, 95(2), 94-98.
Blair, I. V., Chapleau, K. M., & Judd, C. M. (2005). The use of Afrocentric features as cues for judgment in the presence of diagnostic information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35(1), 59-68.
Blair, I. V., Judd, C. M., & Chapleau, K. M. (2004). The influence of Afrocentric facial features in criminal sentencing. Psychological Science, 15(10), 674-679.
Boles, M. (2006). The fundamental reason ad agencies lack diversity. Seldom TYPQL. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1ygftxK
Branscombe, N. R. & Smith, E. R. (1990). Gender and racial stereotypes in impression formation and social decision-making processes. Sex Roles, 22(9), 627-647.
Brewer, M. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brosius, H. & Engel, D. (1996). The causes of third-person effects: unrealistic optimism, impersonal impact, or generalized negative attitudes towards media influence? International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 8(2), 142-162.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2013). Labor force statistics from the current population survey. Retrieved from http://1.usa.gov/1vRJHEr
Caers, R. & Castelyns, V. (2011). LinkedIn and Facebook in Belgium: The influences and biases of social network sites in recruitment and selection procedures. Social Science Computer Review, 29(4), 437-448.
Chambers, J. (2008). Madison Avenue and the color line. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press,
Chugh, D. (2004). Why milliseconds matter: Societal and managerial implications of implicit social cognition. Social Justice Research, 17(2), 203-222.
Cloutier, J., Mason, M. F., & Macrae, C. N. (2005). The perceptual determinants of person construal: Reopening the social-cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(6), 885-894.
Cohen, J., & Davis, R. G. (1991). Third-person effects and the differential impact in negative political advertising. Journalism Quarterly, 68(4), 680-688.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2010). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Davison, W. P. (1983). The third-person effect in communication. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 47(1), 1-15.
Davison, H., Maraist, C., & Bing, M. (2011). Friend or foe? The promise and pitfalls of using social networking sites for HR decisions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 26(2), 153-159.
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5-18.
Dion, K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24(3), 285-290.
Dixon, T. L. (2008). Network news and racial beliefs: Exploring the connection between national television news exposure and stereotypical perceptions of African Americans. Journal of Communication, 58(2), 321-337.
Duggan, M., & Smith, A. (2013). Demographics of key social networking platforms. Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from http://pewrsr.ch/1dgadzL
Elliott, S. (2009). A lawyer’s call for a greater black presence in agencies. New York Times. Retrieved from http://nyti.ms/1ltj0mU
eMarketer. (2014). Total US ad spending to see largest increase since 2004. Retrieved from http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Total-US-Ad-Spending-See-Largest-Increase-Since-2004/1010982
Employers’ Replies to Racial Names. (2014). The National Bureau of Economic Research website. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/12o5dHJ
Fox, Z. (2012, Aug 7). Not on Facebook? Employers, psychiatrists may think you’re a psychopath. Mashable. Retrieved from http://on.mash.to/1w12D7w
Gawronski, B., Gehske, D., & Banse, R. (2003). Implicit bias in impression formation: Associations influence the construal of individuating information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 573-589.
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4-27.
Greenwald, A. G., Klinger, M. R., & Liu, T. J. (1989). Unconscious processing of dichoptically masked words. Memory & Cognition, 17(1), 35-47.
Grier. S. A., & Brumbaugh, A. M. (1999). Noticing cultural differences: Ad meanings created by target and non-target markets. Journal of Advertising, 28 (1), 79-93.
Gross, D. (2012). Are social media making the résumé obsolete? CNN. Retrieved from http://cnn.it/1AcKyl3
Hamilton, D. L., Sherman, S. J., & Ruvolo, C.M. (1990). Stereotype-based expectancies: Effects on information processing and social behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 46(2), 35-60.
Hampton, K. N., Goulet, L. S., Rainie, L., & Purcell, K. (2011). Social networking sites and our lives. Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2011/06/16/part-2-who-are-social-networking-site-users/
Humphreys, J. (2013, September 4). Minority buying power up in 2013, according to UGA Multicultural Economy study. UGA Today [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1vedC6H
Keitel, L. (2012, Oct. 29). Unleash Your potential: Resume still an important tool. Times-Herald Record. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1rSAH4l.
Kluemper, D. H. (2013). Social network screening: pitfalls, possibilities, and parallels in employment selection. In Bondarouk, T. and Olivas-Lujan, M. (Eds.), Advanced Series in Management, Emerald Group Publishing Ltd, Bingly, pp. 1-21.
Kluemper, D. H., & Rosen, P. A. (2009). Future employment selection methods: evaluating social networking web sites. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 24(6), 567-580.
Kunda, Z., Sinclair, L., & Griffin, D. (1997). Equal ratings but separate meanings: Stereotypes and the construals of traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(4), 720-734.
Lampel, A. K., & Anderson, N. H. (1968). Combining visual and verbal information in an impression-formation task. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9(1), 1-6.
Lindlof, T. R., & Taylor, B. (2002). Qualitative communication research methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93-120.
Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(5), 808-817.
Macrae, C. N. & Martin, D. (2007). A boy primed Sue: Feature-based processing and person construal. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 793-805.
Marlowe, C. M., Schneider, S. L., & Nelson, C. E. (1996). Gender and attractiveness biases in hiring decisions: Are more experienced managers less biased. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(1), 11-21.
Martin, D. & Macrae, C. N. (2007). A face with a cue: Exploring the inevitability of person categorization. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 806-816.
Miller, A. G. (1970). Role of physical attractiveness in impression formation. Psychonomic Science, 19(4), 241-243.
Monteith, M. J., Sherman, J. W., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Suppression as stereotype control strategy. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(1), 63-82.
Morris, M., & Fiske, S. (2009). The new face of workplace discrimination. Forbes. Retrieved from http://onforb.es/1viK7FP
NAACP. (2010). NAACP takes on ad companies with Madison Avenue Project. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1vefdcD
Newsroom. (2014, October 28). Facebook. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1g5Ztpx
Nisen, M. (2013). Moneyball at work: They've discovered what really makes a great employee. Retrieved from http://read.bi/1bA7tMK
Petri, A. (2012, August 8). The Facebook psychosis. Washington Post. Retrieved from http://wapo.st/1FLGaMT
Perloff, R.M. (2009). Mass media, social perception, and the third-person effect. In J. Bryant and M.B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research: pp. 252-268.
Roberts, S. (2008, August 14). Minorities in U.S. set to become majority by 2042. New York Times. Retrieved from http://nyti.ms/1rVRQ7x
Rose, M.M. (2007). Advertising industry working fast to boost minority hiring, increase internships. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1CCDK4Z
Schawbel, D. (2011). 5 reasons why your online presence will replace your resume in 10 years. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/danschawbel/2011/02/21/5-reasons-why-your-online-presence-will-replace-your-resume-in-10-years/#6d333cfd2c65
Silverman, R. (2012, Jan 4). No more résumés, say some firms. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from http://on.wsj.com/1FKlUcA
Social media is part of today’s workplace but its use may raise employment discrimination concerns. (2014, March 12). EEOC website [Press Release]. Retrieved from http://1.usa.gov/1ozNkZU
Statistics. (2014, October 28). YouTube. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1jJRc8O
Swallow, E. (2011, Oct. 23). How recruiters use social networks to screen candidates. Mashable. Retrieved from http://on.mash.to/15O4pxm
Target Market News (2012). Survey contrasts perceptions between multicultural and white ad professionals. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1CCFefD
Texeira, E. (2006). Ad agencies look to recruit minorities. Washington Post. Retrieved from http://wapo.st/1FLHxeC
Thompson, W. C., Fong, G. T., & Rosenhan, D. L. (1981). Inadmissible evidence and juror verdicts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(3), 453-463.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2012). Prohibited Practices. Retrieved from http://1.usa.gov/1zMKxTX
Van Der Heide, B., D’Angelo, J. D., & Schumaker, E. M. (2012). The effects of verbal versus photographic self-presentation on impression formation in Facebook. Journal of Communication, 62(1), 98-116.
Watch the Full Length Film. (2010). The Pursuit of Passion: Diversity in advertising website. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/1BaxPmd
Wegner, D. M., Coulton, G. F., & Wenzlaff, R. (1985). The transparency of denial: Briefing in the debriefing paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,49(2), 338-346.
Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(1), 5-13
Weichselbaumer, D. (2003). Sexual orientation discrimination in hiring. Labour Economics, 10, 629-642.
Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2006). Mass media research: An introduction. (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Yin, R. K. (2012). Applications of case study research. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Zide, J., Elman, B., & Shahani-Denning, C. (2014). LinkedIn and recruitment: How profiles differ across occupations. Employee Relations, 36(5), 583-604.
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