Employers' Use of Social Networking Sites in the Selection Process
Keywords:
employers, social networking sites, social mediaAbstract
Organizations are increasingly turning to social networking websites for insight into prospective employees. While existing research addresses many of the facets of human resource selection, the context of social networking sites is unique. Issues such as privacy, appearance, stigmas, and discrimination require study in the context of social networking to bridge past research with evolving practice. This article discusses human resource practices as they relate to the use of social networking sites for hiring purposes. The authors present an overview of social networking sites, briefly discuss applicable existing literature, offer relevant theory and propositions, discuss potential impacts on stakeholders, suggest guidelines for practitioners, and conclude with future research directions.
References
Avery, R. D., Campion, J. E., (1982). The employment interview: A summary and review of recent research. Personnel Psychology, 35, 284-308.
Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2008). Social network sites: Definition, history and scholarship. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 13(1), 210-230.
Brown, V. R., & Vaughn, E. D. (2011). The writing on the (Facebook) wall: The use of social networking sites in hiring decisions. Journal of Business Psychology, 26, 219-225.
Bull R., Rumsey N. (1988). The social psychology of facial appearance. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Cacioppo, J. T., Larsen, J. T., Smith, N. K., & Bernston, G. G. (2004). The affect system: What lurks below the surface of feelings? In A.S.R. Manstead, N. H. Firjda, & A. H. Fischer (Eds.), Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam conference. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Cann A., Siegfried, W.D., & Pearce, L. (1981). Forced attention to specific applicant qualifications: Impact on physical attractiveness and sex of applicant biases. Personnel Psychology, 34, 65-75.
Civil Rights Act of 1964 § 7, 42 U.S.C. §2000e et seq. (1964). Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Retrieved from http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/titlevii.cfm.
Clark, A. S. (2006). Employers look at Facebook too: Companies turn to online profiles to see what applicants are really like. CBS Evening News. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/06/20/eveningnews/main1734920.shtml
Davison, K. H., Maraist, C., & Bing, M. N. (2011). Friend or foe? The promise and pitfalls of using social networking sites for HR decisions. Journal of Business Psychology, 26, 153-159.
Deloitte. (2009). Social networking and reputational risk in the workplace: Deloitte LLP 2009 Ethics & Workplace Survey results. Retrieved June 11, 2012 from http://www.deloitte.com/dtt/cda/doc/content/us_2009_ethics_workplace_survey_220509. pdf.
Deutsch, F. M., Zalenski, C. M., & Clark, M. E. (1986). Is there a double standard of aging? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16, 771-785.
Dion, K. K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285-290.
Dipboye, R. L. (1992). Selection interviews: Process perspectives. Cincinnati: South-Western.
Dipboye, R. L., & Gehrlein, T. M. (1993). Attractiveness bias in the interview: Exploring the boundaries of an effect. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 14(3), 317-328.
Dipboye, R. L. (2005). Looking the part: Bias against the physically unattractive as a discrimination issue. In R. L. Dipboye & A. Colella (Eds.), Discrimination at work: The psychological and organizational bases. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dipboye R.L., Fromkin H.L., & Wiback K. (1975). Relative importance of applicant sex, attractiveness, and scholastic standing in evaluation of job applicant resumes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 39-43.
Duffy, D. J. (1982). Privacy in the workplace: Constitutional restrictions on employers. Employment Relations Today, 11, 305-310.
E.G. Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424, 91 S. Ct. 849, 28 L. Ed. 2d 158. (1977). Retrieved December 26, 2011 from http://epic.org/privacy/socialnet/
Facebook factsheet. (2010). Facebook. Retrieved from http://www.facebook.com/press/info.php?factsheet
Facebook. (2011). Facebook, Inc. News. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/business/companies/facebook_inc/index.html
Feingold, A. (1990). Gender differences in effects of physical attractiveness on romantic attraction: A comparison across five research paradigms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 59, 981-993.
Framingham, H. H. (2008). Employers use social networks in hiring process. Computerworld Retrieved from http://www.computerworld.co.nz
Frieze I.H, Olson J.E, Russell J. (1991). Attractiveness and income for men and women in management. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1039-1057.
Gen Y’d, Recruit on MySpace.com? Better Be Careful! (September 21, 2006). Retrieved from http://www.ere.net/
Gillen, B. (1981). Physical attractiveness: A determinant of two types of goodness. Personal Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 277.
Gilmore D.C., Beehr, T.A., & Love K.G. (1986). Effects of applicant sex, applicant physical attractiveness, type of rater and type of job on interview decisions. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 59, 103-109.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Grasz, J. (2009). Forty-five percent of employers use social networking sites to research job candidates, CareerBuilder survey finds. CareerBuilder Press Releases. Retrieved June 5, 2012 from http://www.careerbuilder.com/share/aboutus/pressreleasesdetail. aspx?id=pr519&sd=8%2f19%2f2009&ed=12%2f31%2f2009& iteid=cbpr&sc_ cmp1=cb_pr519.
Griffin, A. M., & Langlois, J. H. (2006). Stereotype directionality and attractiveness stereotyping: Is beauty good or is ugly bad?. Social Cognition, 24(2), 187-206.
Gueutal, H. G., & Stone, D. L. (Eds.). (2005). The brave new world of eHR. Human resources management in the digital age. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Harpe, L. (2009). Social networks and employment law: Are you putting your organization at risk? ABI. Retrieved from http://www.iowaabi.org
Henry, D. B. (1994). The employment interview and persons with disabilities: An investigation using the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois-Chicago, 1993). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54, 3884.
Heriot, G. L. (1993). New feudalism: The unintended destination of contemporary trends in employment law. Georgia Law Review, 28, 167.
Hosoda, M., Stone-Romero E. F., & Coats G. (2003). The effects of physical attractiveness on job-related outcomes: a meta-analysis of experimental studies. Personnel Psychology, 56(2), 431-462.
Ito, T. A., Larsen, J. T., Smith, N. K., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1998). Negative information weighs more heavily on the brain: The negativity bias in evaluative categorizations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 887-900.
Jackson, L. A. (1992). Physical appearance and gender: Sociobiological and sociocultural perspectives. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Jones, Edward E. (1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationship. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.) New York: Wiley.
Kaufman, A. (2010). Social networks in personal injury litigation. New York Law Journal.
Kleck, R. E. (1969). Physical stigma and task-oriented interaction. Human Relations, 19, 425-436.
Klesges, R., Klem, M., Hanson, C., Eck, L., Erst, J., O’Laughlin, D., Garrot, A., & Rife, R. (1990). The effect of applicant’s health status and qualifications on stimulated hiring decisions. International Journal of Obesity, 14, 527-535.
Kluemper, D. & Rosen, P. (2009). Future employment selection methods: Evaluating social networking web sites. Journal of ManagerialPsychology, 24(6), 567-580.
Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L. Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A., Hallman, M., & Smoot, M. (2002). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychology Bulletin, 126(3), 390-423.
Marcus, D. K., & Miller, R. S. (2003). Sex differences in judgments of physical attractiveness: A social relations analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(3), 325-335.
Marlowe, C. M., Schneider, S. L., & Nelson, C. E. (1996). Gender and attractiveness biases in hiring decisions: Are more experienced managers less biased? Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 11-21.
Morrow, P.C., McElroy, J.C., Stamper, B.G., & Wilson, M.A. (1990). The effects of physical attractiveness and other demographic characteristics on promotion decisions. Journal of Management, 16, 723-736.
Motowidlo, S. J., & Burnett, J. R. (1995). Aural and visual sources of validity in structured employment interviews. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 61, 239-249.
Nielsen. (2010). Social network blogs wow account for one in every four and a half minutes online. http://www.nielsen.com
Nissenbaum, H. (2004). Privacy as contextual integrity. Washington Law Review, 79(1), 101-139.
Peeters, G. (2002). From good and bad to can and must: Subjective necessity of acts associated with positively and negatively valued stimuli. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 125-136.
Quereshi, M. Y., & Kay, J. F. (1986). Physical attractiveness, age, and sex as determinants of reactions to resumes. Social Behavior and Personality, 14, 103-112.
Roszell, P., Kennedy, D., & Grabb, E. (1989). Physical attractiveness and income attainment among Canadians. Journal of Psychology, 123, 547-559.
Sackett, P. R. (2007). Revisiting the origins of the typical-maximum performance distinction. Human Performance, 20, 179-185.
Schwartz, B. (1968). The social psychology of privacy. American Journal of Sociology, 73, 741-752.
Shahani-Denning, C., Dipboye, R. L., & Gehrlein, T. M. (1993). Attractiveness bias to the interview: Exploring the boundaries of an effect. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 14, 317-328.
Sharf, J. (1999). Third circuit’s Lanning v. SEPTA decision: ‘business necessity’ requires setting minimum standards. The Industrial/Organizational Psychologist, 37(2), 138-149.
Shea, K., & Wesley, J. (2006). How social networking sites affect students, career services, and employers. National Assessment of Colleges and Employers Journal, 66(3), 26-32.
SHRM Staffing Research. (2008). Online technologies and their impact on recruitment strategies. Available at www.shrm.org.
Singletary, M., (2012), Would you give potential employers your Facebook password? Washington Post, Retrieved July 26, 2012 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/would-you-give-potential-employers-your-facebook-password/2012/03/29/gIQAlJiqiS_story.html
Stone, D. L., & Stone, E. F. (1987). Effects of missing application blank in formation on personnel decisions: Do privacy protection strategies bias the outcome? Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(3), 452-456.
Stone, D. L., Lukaszweski, K. M., & Isenhour, L. (2005). E-recruiting: Online strategies for attracting talent. In H. G. Gueutal & D. L. Stone (Eds.). The brave new world of eHR (pp. 22-53). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Stone, E. F., & Stone, D. L. (1990). Privacy in organizations: Theoretical issues, research findings, and protections mechanisms. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 8, 459-468.
Stone, E. F., Stone, D. L., & Dipboye, R. L. (1992). Stigmas in organizations: Race, handicaps, and physical unattractiveness. In K. Kelly (Ed.), Issues, theory, and research in industrial/organizational psychology. 385-444.
Stone-Romero, E. F., & Stone, D. L. (1998). Religious and moral influences on work related values and work quality. In D. Fedor & S. Ganoush (Eds.), Advances in the management of organizational quality (pp. 185-285). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Stone-Romero, E. F. (2005). Personality-based stigmas and unfair discrimination in work organizations. In Discrimination at work: The psychological and organizational bases (pp. 247-272). Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Swallow, E. (2011). How recruiters use social networks to screen candidates. Mashable. Retrieved October 23, 2011 from www.mashable.com
Taylor, A. (2007). Careless online talk can cost candidates jobs. Financial Times. Retrieved October 23, 2011 from www.ft.com
Vazarie, S., & Gosling, S. D. (2004). E-perceptions: Personality impressions based on personal websites. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 123.
Zeidner, R. (2007). How deep can you probe? HR Magazine, 52(10), 57-62.
Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N. B. (2008). Social network sites: Definition, history and scholarship. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 13(1), 210-230.
Brown, V. R., & Vaughn, E. D. (2011). The writing on the (Facebook) wall: The use of social networking sites in hiring decisions. Journal of Business Psychology, 26, 219-225.
Bull R., Rumsey N. (1988). The social psychology of facial appearance. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Cacioppo, J. T., Larsen, J. T., Smith, N. K., & Bernston, G. G. (2004). The affect system: What lurks below the surface of feelings? In A.S.R. Manstead, N. H. Firjda, & A. H. Fischer (Eds.), Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam conference. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Cann A., Siegfried, W.D., & Pearce, L. (1981). Forced attention to specific applicant qualifications: Impact on physical attractiveness and sex of applicant biases. Personnel Psychology, 34, 65-75.
Civil Rights Act of 1964 § 7, 42 U.S.C. §2000e et seq. (1964). Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Retrieved from http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/titlevii.cfm.
Clark, A. S. (2006). Employers look at Facebook too: Companies turn to online profiles to see what applicants are really like. CBS Evening News. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/06/20/eveningnews/main1734920.shtml
Davison, K. H., Maraist, C., & Bing, M. N. (2011). Friend or foe? The promise and pitfalls of using social networking sites for HR decisions. Journal of Business Psychology, 26, 153-159.
Deloitte. (2009). Social networking and reputational risk in the workplace: Deloitte LLP 2009 Ethics & Workplace Survey results. Retrieved June 11, 2012 from http://www.deloitte.com/dtt/cda/doc/content/us_2009_ethics_workplace_survey_220509. pdf.
Deutsch, F. M., Zalenski, C. M., & Clark, M. E. (1986). Is there a double standard of aging? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 16, 771-785.
Dion, K. K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285-290.
Dipboye, R. L. (1992). Selection interviews: Process perspectives. Cincinnati: South-Western.
Dipboye, R. L., & Gehrlein, T. M. (1993). Attractiveness bias in the interview: Exploring the boundaries of an effect. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 14(3), 317-328.
Dipboye, R. L. (2005). Looking the part: Bias against the physically unattractive as a discrimination issue. In R. L. Dipboye & A. Colella (Eds.), Discrimination at work: The psychological and organizational bases. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dipboye R.L., Fromkin H.L., & Wiback K. (1975). Relative importance of applicant sex, attractiveness, and scholastic standing in evaluation of job applicant resumes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 39-43.
Duffy, D. J. (1982). Privacy in the workplace: Constitutional restrictions on employers. Employment Relations Today, 11, 305-310.
E.G. Griggs v. Duke Power Co., 401 U.S. 424, 91 S. Ct. 849, 28 L. Ed. 2d 158. (1977). Retrieved December 26, 2011 from http://epic.org/privacy/socialnet/
Facebook factsheet. (2010). Facebook. Retrieved from http://www.facebook.com/press/info.php?factsheet
Facebook. (2011). Facebook, Inc. News. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/business/companies/facebook_inc/index.html
Feingold, A. (1990). Gender differences in effects of physical attractiveness on romantic attraction: A comparison across five research paradigms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 59, 981-993.
Framingham, H. H. (2008). Employers use social networks in hiring process. Computerworld Retrieved from http://www.computerworld.co.nz
Frieze I.H, Olson J.E, Russell J. (1991). Attractiveness and income for men and women in management. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 1039-1057.
Gen Y’d, Recruit on MySpace.com? Better Be Careful! (September 21, 2006). Retrieved from http://www.ere.net/
Gillen, B. (1981). Physical attractiveness: A determinant of two types of goodness. Personal Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 277.
Gilmore D.C., Beehr, T.A., & Love K.G. (1986). Effects of applicant sex, applicant physical attractiveness, type of rater and type of job on interview decisions. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 59, 103-109.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Grasz, J. (2009). Forty-five percent of employers use social networking sites to research job candidates, CareerBuilder survey finds. CareerBuilder Press Releases. Retrieved June 5, 2012 from http://www.careerbuilder.com/share/aboutus/pressreleasesdetail. aspx?id=pr519&sd=8%2f19%2f2009&ed=12%2f31%2f2009& iteid=cbpr&sc_ cmp1=cb_pr519.
Griffin, A. M., & Langlois, J. H. (2006). Stereotype directionality and attractiveness stereotyping: Is beauty good or is ugly bad?. Social Cognition, 24(2), 187-206.
Gueutal, H. G., & Stone, D. L. (Eds.). (2005). The brave new world of eHR. Human resources management in the digital age. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Harpe, L. (2009). Social networks and employment law: Are you putting your organization at risk? ABI. Retrieved from http://www.iowaabi.org
Henry, D. B. (1994). The employment interview and persons with disabilities: An investigation using the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois-Chicago, 1993). Dissertation Abstracts International, 54, 3884.
Heriot, G. L. (1993). New feudalism: The unintended destination of contemporary trends in employment law. Georgia Law Review, 28, 167.
Hosoda, M., Stone-Romero E. F., & Coats G. (2003). The effects of physical attractiveness on job-related outcomes: a meta-analysis of experimental studies. Personnel Psychology, 56(2), 431-462.
Ito, T. A., Larsen, J. T., Smith, N. K., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1998). Negative information weighs more heavily on the brain: The negativity bias in evaluative categorizations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 887-900.
Jackson, L. A. (1992). Physical appearance and gender: Sociobiological and sociocultural perspectives. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Jones, Edward E. (1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationship. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.) New York: Wiley.
Kaufman, A. (2010). Social networks in personal injury litigation. New York Law Journal.
Kleck, R. E. (1969). Physical stigma and task-oriented interaction. Human Relations, 19, 425-436.
Klesges, R., Klem, M., Hanson, C., Eck, L., Erst, J., O’Laughlin, D., Garrot, A., & Rife, R. (1990). The effect of applicant’s health status and qualifications on stimulated hiring decisions. International Journal of Obesity, 14, 527-535.
Kluemper, D. & Rosen, P. (2009). Future employment selection methods: Evaluating social networking web sites. Journal of ManagerialPsychology, 24(6), 567-580.
Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L. Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A., Hallman, M., & Smoot, M. (2002). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychology Bulletin, 126(3), 390-423.
Marcus, D. K., & Miller, R. S. (2003). Sex differences in judgments of physical attractiveness: A social relations analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(3), 325-335.
Marlowe, C. M., Schneider, S. L., & Nelson, C. E. (1996). Gender and attractiveness biases in hiring decisions: Are more experienced managers less biased? Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 11-21.
Morrow, P.C., McElroy, J.C., Stamper, B.G., & Wilson, M.A. (1990). The effects of physical attractiveness and other demographic characteristics on promotion decisions. Journal of Management, 16, 723-736.
Motowidlo, S. J., & Burnett, J. R. (1995). Aural and visual sources of validity in structured employment interviews. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 61, 239-249.
Nielsen. (2010). Social network blogs wow account for one in every four and a half minutes online. http://www.nielsen.com
Nissenbaum, H. (2004). Privacy as contextual integrity. Washington Law Review, 79(1), 101-139.
Peeters, G. (2002). From good and bad to can and must: Subjective necessity of acts associated with positively and negatively valued stimuli. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 125-136.
Quereshi, M. Y., & Kay, J. F. (1986). Physical attractiveness, age, and sex as determinants of reactions to resumes. Social Behavior and Personality, 14, 103-112.
Roszell, P., Kennedy, D., & Grabb, E. (1989). Physical attractiveness and income attainment among Canadians. Journal of Psychology, 123, 547-559.
Sackett, P. R. (2007). Revisiting the origins of the typical-maximum performance distinction. Human Performance, 20, 179-185.
Schwartz, B. (1968). The social psychology of privacy. American Journal of Sociology, 73, 741-752.
Shahani-Denning, C., Dipboye, R. L., & Gehrlein, T. M. (1993). Attractiveness bias to the interview: Exploring the boundaries of an effect. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 14, 317-328.
Sharf, J. (1999). Third circuit’s Lanning v. SEPTA decision: ‘business necessity’ requires setting minimum standards. The Industrial/Organizational Psychologist, 37(2), 138-149.
Shea, K., & Wesley, J. (2006). How social networking sites affect students, career services, and employers. National Assessment of Colleges and Employers Journal, 66(3), 26-32.
SHRM Staffing Research. (2008). Online technologies and their impact on recruitment strategies. Available at www.shrm.org.
Singletary, M., (2012), Would you give potential employers your Facebook password? Washington Post, Retrieved July 26, 2012 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/would-you-give-potential-employers-your-facebook-password/2012/03/29/gIQAlJiqiS_story.html
Stone, D. L., & Stone, E. F. (1987). Effects of missing application blank in formation on personnel decisions: Do privacy protection strategies bias the outcome? Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(3), 452-456.
Stone, D. L., Lukaszweski, K. M., & Isenhour, L. (2005). E-recruiting: Online strategies for attracting talent. In H. G. Gueutal & D. L. Stone (Eds.). The brave new world of eHR (pp. 22-53). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Stone, E. F., & Stone, D. L. (1990). Privacy in organizations: Theoretical issues, research findings, and protections mechanisms. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 8, 459-468.
Stone, E. F., Stone, D. L., & Dipboye, R. L. (1992). Stigmas in organizations: Race, handicaps, and physical unattractiveness. In K. Kelly (Ed.), Issues, theory, and research in industrial/organizational psychology. 385-444.
Stone-Romero, E. F., & Stone, D. L. (1998). Religious and moral influences on work related values and work quality. In D. Fedor & S. Ganoush (Eds.), Advances in the management of organizational quality (pp. 185-285). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Stone-Romero, E. F. (2005). Personality-based stigmas and unfair discrimination in work organizations. In Discrimination at work: The psychological and organizational bases (pp. 247-272). Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Swallow, E. (2011). How recruiters use social networks to screen candidates. Mashable. Retrieved October 23, 2011 from www.mashable.com
Taylor, A. (2007). Careless online talk can cost candidates jobs. Financial Times. Retrieved October 23, 2011 from www.ft.com
Vazarie, S., & Gosling, S. D. (2004). E-perceptions: Personality impressions based on personal websites. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 123.
Zeidner, R. (2007). How deep can you probe? HR Magazine, 52(10), 57-62.
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