Real or Fake News: Who Knows?
Keywords:
fake news, fake, social media, SNS, Facebook, Trump, presidentAbstract
After it became one of the most discussed issues during the 2016 U.S. presidential election, this study analyses how often college students are able to tell real from fake news, by applying concepts of news credibility research, using real and fake news stories previously published online. The study looks into respondents’ research and news consumption behavior, as well as comparing results to respondents’ personal characteristics. Results show that the amount of information provided matters, while most personal traits do not, and although most are aware of fake news, they do not act as they should.References
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Alcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election. Retrieved from Stanford University: https://web.stanford.edu/~gentzkow/research/fakenews.pdf
Andaleeb, S. S., Rahman, A., Rajeb, M., Akter, N., & Gulshan, S. (2012). Credibility of TV News in a Developing Country: The Case of Bangladesh. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 89(1), 73-90.
Balmas, M. (2014). When Fake News Becomes Real: Combined Exposure to Multiple News Sources and Political Attitudes of Inefficacy, Alienation, and Cynicism. Communication Research, 41(3), 430– 454.
Barthel, M., Mitchell, A., & Holcomb, J. (2016). Many Americans Believe Fake News Is Sowing Confusion. Retrieved from Pew Research Center: http://www.journalism.org/2016/12/15/many-americans-believe-fake-news-is-sowing-confusion/
Baym, G. (2005). The Daily Show: Discursive integration and the reinvention of political journalism. Political Communication, 22(3), 259–276.
Berlo, D. K., Lemert, J. B., & Mertz, R. J. (1969). Dimensions for evaluating the acceptability of message sources. Public Opinion Quarterly, 33(4), 563-576.
Bucy, E. P. (2003). Media credibility reconsidered: Synergy effects between on air and online news. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 80(2), 247–264.
Cassidy, W. P. (2007). Online News Credibility: An Examination of the Perceptions of Newspaper Journalists. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 478–498.
Chen, Y., Conroy, N. J., & Rubin, V. L. (2015). News in an Online World: The Need for an “Automatic Crap Detector”. ASIST. St. Louis, MO.
Choi, J. H., Watt, J. H., & Lynch, M. (2006). Perceptions of News Credibility about the War in Iraq: Why War Opponents Perceived the Internet as the Most Credible Medium. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 209-229.
Consumer Reports WebWatch. (2005). Leap of faith: Using the Internet despite the dangers. Retrieved from http://www.ConsumerWebWatch.org/pdfs/princeton.pdf
Craft, S., Ashley, S., & Maksl, A. (2016). Elements of News Literacy: A Focus Group Study of How Teenagers Define News and Why They Consume It. Electronic News, 10(3), 143-160.
Day, A., & Thompson, E. (2012). Live From New York, It’s the Fake News! Saturday Night Live and the (Non)Politics of Parody. Popular Communication(10), 170–182.
Fischer, P., Jonas, E., Frey, D., & Schulz-Hardt, S. (2005). Selective exposure to information: the impact of information limits. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 469–492.
Flanagin, A. J., & Metzger, M. J. (2000). Perceptions of Internet Information Credibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(3), 515-540.
Fogg, B. J., & Tseng, S. (1999). The elements of computer credibility. Proceedings of Computer Human Interface SIG conference, (pp. 80–87).
Gaziano, C., & McGrath, K. (1986). Measuring the concept of credibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 63(3), 451–462.
Giglietto, F., Iannelli, L., Rossi, L., & Valeriani, A. (2016). Fakes, News and the Election: A New Taxonomy for the Study of Misleading Information within the Hybrid Media System. Retrieved February 9, 2017, from SSRN: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2906444
Grynbaum, M. H. (2017, February 17). Trump calls the news media the enemy of the people. Retrieved from New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/ business/trump-calls-the-news-media-the-enemy-of-thepeople.html?_r=0 Institute of Education
Hall, C. C., Ariss, L., & Todorov, A. (2007). The illusion of knowledge: When more information reduces accuracy and increases confidence. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103(2), 277–290.
Hensch, M. (2017). Spicer: White House ‘disgusted by CNN’s. Retrieved from The Hill: http://thehill.com/homenews/administration/319032-spicer-wh-disgusted-by-cnns-fake-news
Holbert, R. L. (2005). A typology for the study of entertainment television politics. The American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 436-453.
Hunt, E. (2017, January 24). 'Fake news' named word of the year by Macquarie Dictionary. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/jan/25/fake-news-named-word-of-the-year-by-macquarie-dictionary
Johnson, L. (2017). The Smell Test. Retrieved from School Library Journal: http://www.slj.com/2017/01/industry-news/the-smell-test-educators-can-counter-fake-news-with-information-literacy-heres-how/#_
Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2000). Using is believing: the influence of reliance on the credibility of online political information among politically interested Internet users. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(4), 865–879.
Jones, D. A. (2004). Why americans don’t trust the media-a prelimiary anaylsis. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 9(2), 60-75.
Kapoun, J. (1998). Teaching Undergrads Web Evaluation: A Guide for Library Instruction. Retrieved from American Library Association: http:/ /www.ala.org/ acrl/undwebev.htm
Khaldarova, I., & Pantti, M. (2016). Fake News. Journalism Practice, 10(7), 891-901.
Kiousis, S. (2001). Public trust or mistrust? Perceptions of media credibility in the information age. Mass Communication and Society, 4(4), 381-403.
Klein, D. O., & Wueller, J. R. (2017). Fake News: A Legal Perspective. Journal of Internet Law, 20(10), 1, 6-13.
Levin, S. (2016, September 10). 'Facebook needs an editor': media experts urge change after photo dispute. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/sep/10/facebook-news-media-editor-vietnam-photo-censorship
Levy, S., & Gvili, Y. (2015). How Credible is E-Word of Mouth Across Digital-Marketing Channels? The Roles of Social Capital, Information Richness, and Interactivity. Journal of Advertising Research, 55(1), 95-109.
Li, R., & Suh, A. (2015). Factors Influencing Information credibility on Social Media Platforms: Evidence from Facebook Pages. Procedia Computer Science, 72, 314–328.
Local Media Consortium. (2017). Local Media Consortium Members and Partners Release Position Statement On So-Called "Fake News". Retrieved from Local Media Consortium: http://www.localmediaconsortium.com/local-media-consortium-members-partners-release-position-statement-called-fake-news/
Mackay, J. B., & Lowrey, W. (2011). The Credibility Divide: Reader Trust of Online Newspapers and Blogs. Journal of Media Sociology, 3(1-4), 39-57.
Marchi, R. (2012). With Facebook, Blogs, and Fake News, Teens Reject Journalistic “Objectivity”. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 36(3), 246– 262.
Marier, S. (2005). Accuracy matters: A cross-market assessment of newspaper error and credibility. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 82(3), 533-551.
Metzger, M. J., Flanagin, A. J., & Zwarun, L. (2003). College student web use, perceptions of information credibility, and verification behavior. Computers and Education, 41(3), 271–290.
Meyer, H. K., Marchionni, D., & Thorson, E. (2010). The Journalist Behind the News: Credibility of Straight, Collaborative, Opinionated, and Blogged “News”. American Behavioral Scientist, 54(2), 100-119.
Mossberg, W. (2016, November 30). Mossberg: Facebook can and should wipe out fake news. Retrieved from The Verge: http://www.theverge.com/2016/11/30/13787750/walt-mossberg-facebook-fake-news
Mulder, R. (1981). A log-linear analysis of media credibility. Journalism Quarterly, 58, 635–638.
Nelson, L. (2016, October 24). Trump accuses Democrats of 'making up phony polls' to suppress supporters. Retrieved from Politico: http://www.politico.com/story/2016/10/trump-tweet-dems-phony-polls-230224
Ortutay, B. (2016, December 15). Facebook gets serious about fighting fake news. Retrieved from The Associated Press: http://bigstory.ap.org/article/22e0809d20264498bece040e85b96935/facebook-takes-fake-news
Park, C.-Y. (2005). Decomposing Korean News Credibility in the Internet Age. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 18(2), 238-245.
Parkinson, H. J. (2016, November 27). Click and elect: how fake news helped Donald Trump win a real election. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/14/fake-news-donald-trump-election-alt-right-social-media-tech-companies
Parmelee, J. H., & Perkins, S. C. (2012). Exploring social and psychological factors that influence the gathering of political information online. Telematics and Informatics, 29, 90-98.
Pavlik, J. V. (2005, Fall). Fake News: One man's experience on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. Television Quarterly, 36(1), 44-50.
Peters, R. G., Covello, V. T., & McCallum, D. B. (1997). The Determinants of Trust and Credibility in Environmental Risk Communication: An Empirical Study. Risk Analysis, 17(1), 43-54.
Pitts, L. (2016, November 25). Fake news will have real consequences — it already has. Retrieved from The Miami Herald: http://www.miamiherald.com/opinion/opn-columns-blogs/leonard-pitts-jr/article117144133.html
Polage, D. C. (2012). Making up History: False Memories of Fake News Stories. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 8(2), 245–250.
Rahman, S., & Marjan, S. M. (2013). Talk shows in Bangladeshi Satellite TV Channels: Audience Perceptions and Perspectives. Social Science Review [The Dhaka University Studies, Part-D], 30(2), 147-164.
Reilly, I. (2012). Satirical Fake News and/as American Political Discourse. The Journal of American Culture, 35(3), 258-275.
Rimmer, T., & Weaver, D. (1987). Different Questions, Different Answers? Media Use and Media Credibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 64(1), 28-44.
Roper, B. W. (1971). An extended view of public attitudes toward television and other mass media, 1959-1971: A report by The Roper Organization, Inc. New York, NY: Television Information Office.
Roper, B. W. (1985). Public attitudes toward television and other media in a time of change. New York, NY: Television Information Office.
Rosen, D. J. (1998). Driver Education for the Information Superhighway: How Adult Learners and Practitioners Use the Internet. Literacy Leader Fellowship Program Reports, Vol. 2, No. 2. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
Rubin, V. L., Chen, Y., & Conro, N. J. (2015). Deception Detection for News: Three Types of Fakes. Paper presented at annual meeting of the Association for Information Science and Technology.
Rutenberg, J. (2016, November 6). Media’s Next Challenge: Overcoming the Threat of Fake News. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/07/business/media/medias-next-challenge-overcoming-the-threat-of-fake-news.html?_r=0
Ruth, D. (2016, December 5). Ruth: Fake news causes real trouble. Retrieved from Tampa Bay Times: http://www.tampabay.com/opinion/columns/ruth-fake-news-causes-real-trouble/2305193
Savranksy, R. (2017, January 11). Trump berates CNN reporter: 'You are fake news'. Retrieved from The Hill: http://thehill.com/homenews/administration/313777-trump-berates-cnn-reporter-for-fake-news
Scott, M., & Eddy, M. (2017, February 20). Europe Combats a New Foe of Political Stability: Fake News. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/20/world/europe/europe-combats-a-new-foe-of-political-stability-fake-news.html?emc=edit_th_20170221&nl=todaysheadlines&nlid=34713153&_r=0
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Storksdieck, M. (2016). Critical information literacy as core skill for lifelong STEM learning in the 21st century: reflections on the desirability and feasibility for widespread science media education. Cultural Studies of Science Education(11), 167-182.
Storud, N. J., & Lee, J. K. (2013). Perceptions of Cable News Credibility. Mass Communication and Society, 16(1), 67-88.
Sun, Y. (2014). The Effect of self-censorship on news credibility: public’s perception of Hong Kong newspapers after the 1997 Handover. Dissertation, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.
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Alcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election. Retrieved from Stanford University: https://web.stanford.edu/~gentzkow/research/fakenews.pdf
Andaleeb, S. S., Rahman, A., Rajeb, M., Akter, N., & Gulshan, S. (2012). Credibility of TV News in a Developing Country: The Case of Bangladesh. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 89(1), 73-90.
Balmas, M. (2014). When Fake News Becomes Real: Combined Exposure to Multiple News Sources and Political Attitudes of Inefficacy, Alienation, and Cynicism. Communication Research, 41(3), 430– 454.
Barthel, M., Mitchell, A., & Holcomb, J. (2016). Many Americans Believe Fake News Is Sowing Confusion. Retrieved from Pew Research Center: http://www.journalism.org/2016/12/15/many-americans-believe-fake-news-is-sowing-confusion/
Baym, G. (2005). The Daily Show: Discursive integration and the reinvention of political journalism. Political Communication, 22(3), 259–276.
Berlo, D. K., Lemert, J. B., & Mertz, R. J. (1969). Dimensions for evaluating the acceptability of message sources. Public Opinion Quarterly, 33(4), 563-576.
Bucy, E. P. (2003). Media credibility reconsidered: Synergy effects between on air and online news. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 80(2), 247–264.
Cassidy, W. P. (2007). Online News Credibility: An Examination of the Perceptions of Newspaper Journalists. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 478–498.
Chen, Y., Conroy, N. J., & Rubin, V. L. (2015). News in an Online World: The Need for an “Automatic Crap Detector”. ASIST. St. Louis, MO.
Choi, J. H., Watt, J. H., & Lynch, M. (2006). Perceptions of News Credibility about the War in Iraq: Why War Opponents Perceived the Internet as the Most Credible Medium. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12, 209-229.
Consumer Reports WebWatch. (2005). Leap of faith: Using the Internet despite the dangers. Retrieved from http://www.ConsumerWebWatch.org/pdfs/princeton.pdf
Craft, S., Ashley, S., & Maksl, A. (2016). Elements of News Literacy: A Focus Group Study of How Teenagers Define News and Why They Consume It. Electronic News, 10(3), 143-160.
Day, A., & Thompson, E. (2012). Live From New York, It’s the Fake News! Saturday Night Live and the (Non)Politics of Parody. Popular Communication(10), 170–182.
Fischer, P., Jonas, E., Frey, D., & Schulz-Hardt, S. (2005). Selective exposure to information: the impact of information limits. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 469–492.
Flanagin, A. J., & Metzger, M. J. (2000). Perceptions of Internet Information Credibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(3), 515-540.
Fogg, B. J., & Tseng, S. (1999). The elements of computer credibility. Proceedings of Computer Human Interface SIG conference, (pp. 80–87).
Gaziano, C., & McGrath, K. (1986). Measuring the concept of credibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 63(3), 451–462.
Giglietto, F., Iannelli, L., Rossi, L., & Valeriani, A. (2016). Fakes, News and the Election: A New Taxonomy for the Study of Misleading Information within the Hybrid Media System. Retrieved February 9, 2017, from SSRN: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2906444
Grynbaum, M. H. (2017, February 17). Trump calls the news media the enemy of the people. Retrieved from New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/ business/trump-calls-the-news-media-the-enemy-of-thepeople.html?_r=0 Institute of Education
Hall, C. C., Ariss, L., & Todorov, A. (2007). The illusion of knowledge: When more information reduces accuracy and increases confidence. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103(2), 277–290.
Hensch, M. (2017). Spicer: White House ‘disgusted by CNN’s. Retrieved from The Hill: http://thehill.com/homenews/administration/319032-spicer-wh-disgusted-by-cnns-fake-news
Holbert, R. L. (2005). A typology for the study of entertainment television politics. The American Behavioral Scientist, 49, 436-453.
Hunt, E. (2017, January 24). 'Fake news' named word of the year by Macquarie Dictionary. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/jan/25/fake-news-named-word-of-the-year-by-macquarie-dictionary
Johnson, L. (2017). The Smell Test. Retrieved from School Library Journal: http://www.slj.com/2017/01/industry-news/the-smell-test-educators-can-counter-fake-news-with-information-literacy-heres-how/#_
Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2000). Using is believing: the influence of reliance on the credibility of online political information among politically interested Internet users. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77(4), 865–879.
Jones, D. A. (2004). Why americans don’t trust the media-a prelimiary anaylsis. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 9(2), 60-75.
Kapoun, J. (1998). Teaching Undergrads Web Evaluation: A Guide for Library Instruction. Retrieved from American Library Association: http:/ /www.ala.org/ acrl/undwebev.htm
Khaldarova, I., & Pantti, M. (2016). Fake News. Journalism Practice, 10(7), 891-901.
Kiousis, S. (2001). Public trust or mistrust? Perceptions of media credibility in the information age. Mass Communication and Society, 4(4), 381-403.
Klein, D. O., & Wueller, J. R. (2017). Fake News: A Legal Perspective. Journal of Internet Law, 20(10), 1, 6-13.
Levin, S. (2016, September 10). 'Facebook needs an editor': media experts urge change after photo dispute. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/sep/10/facebook-news-media-editor-vietnam-photo-censorship
Levy, S., & Gvili, Y. (2015). How Credible is E-Word of Mouth Across Digital-Marketing Channels? The Roles of Social Capital, Information Richness, and Interactivity. Journal of Advertising Research, 55(1), 95-109.
Li, R., & Suh, A. (2015). Factors Influencing Information credibility on Social Media Platforms: Evidence from Facebook Pages. Procedia Computer Science, 72, 314–328.
Local Media Consortium. (2017). Local Media Consortium Members and Partners Release Position Statement On So-Called "Fake News". Retrieved from Local Media Consortium: http://www.localmediaconsortium.com/local-media-consortium-members-partners-release-position-statement-called-fake-news/
Mackay, J. B., & Lowrey, W. (2011). The Credibility Divide: Reader Trust of Online Newspapers and Blogs. Journal of Media Sociology, 3(1-4), 39-57.
Marchi, R. (2012). With Facebook, Blogs, and Fake News, Teens Reject Journalistic “Objectivity”. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 36(3), 246– 262.
Marier, S. (2005). Accuracy matters: A cross-market assessment of newspaper error and credibility. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 82(3), 533-551.
Metzger, M. J., Flanagin, A. J., & Zwarun, L. (2003). College student web use, perceptions of information credibility, and verification behavior. Computers and Education, 41(3), 271–290.
Meyer, H. K., Marchionni, D., & Thorson, E. (2010). The Journalist Behind the News: Credibility of Straight, Collaborative, Opinionated, and Blogged “News”. American Behavioral Scientist, 54(2), 100-119.
Mossberg, W. (2016, November 30). Mossberg: Facebook can and should wipe out fake news. Retrieved from The Verge: http://www.theverge.com/2016/11/30/13787750/walt-mossberg-facebook-fake-news
Mulder, R. (1981). A log-linear analysis of media credibility. Journalism Quarterly, 58, 635–638.
Nelson, L. (2016, October 24). Trump accuses Democrats of 'making up phony polls' to suppress supporters. Retrieved from Politico: http://www.politico.com/story/2016/10/trump-tweet-dems-phony-polls-230224
Ortutay, B. (2016, December 15). Facebook gets serious about fighting fake news. Retrieved from The Associated Press: http://bigstory.ap.org/article/22e0809d20264498bece040e85b96935/facebook-takes-fake-news
Park, C.-Y. (2005). Decomposing Korean News Credibility in the Internet Age. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 18(2), 238-245.
Parkinson, H. J. (2016, November 27). Click and elect: how fake news helped Donald Trump win a real election. Retrieved from The Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/nov/14/fake-news-donald-trump-election-alt-right-social-media-tech-companies
Parmelee, J. H., & Perkins, S. C. (2012). Exploring social and psychological factors that influence the gathering of political information online. Telematics and Informatics, 29, 90-98.
Pavlik, J. V. (2005, Fall). Fake News: One man's experience on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. Television Quarterly, 36(1), 44-50.
Peters, R. G., Covello, V. T., & McCallum, D. B. (1997). The Determinants of Trust and Credibility in Environmental Risk Communication: An Empirical Study. Risk Analysis, 17(1), 43-54.
Pitts, L. (2016, November 25). Fake news will have real consequences — it already has. Retrieved from The Miami Herald: http://www.miamiherald.com/opinion/opn-columns-blogs/leonard-pitts-jr/article117144133.html
Polage, D. C. (2012). Making up History: False Memories of Fake News Stories. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 8(2), 245–250.
Rahman, S., & Marjan, S. M. (2013). Talk shows in Bangladeshi Satellite TV Channels: Audience Perceptions and Perspectives. Social Science Review [The Dhaka University Studies, Part-D], 30(2), 147-164.
Reilly, I. (2012). Satirical Fake News and/as American Political Discourse. The Journal of American Culture, 35(3), 258-275.
Rimmer, T., & Weaver, D. (1987). Different Questions, Different Answers? Media Use and Media Credibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 64(1), 28-44.
Roper, B. W. (1971). An extended view of public attitudes toward television and other mass media, 1959-1971: A report by The Roper Organization, Inc. New York, NY: Television Information Office.
Roper, B. W. (1985). Public attitudes toward television and other media in a time of change. New York, NY: Television Information Office.
Rosen, D. J. (1998). Driver Education for the Information Superhighway: How Adult Learners and Practitioners Use the Internet. Literacy Leader Fellowship Program Reports, Vol. 2, No. 2. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
Rubin, V. L., Chen, Y., & Conro, N. J. (2015). Deception Detection for News: Three Types of Fakes. Paper presented at annual meeting of the Association for Information Science and Technology.
Rutenberg, J. (2016, November 6). Media’s Next Challenge: Overcoming the Threat of Fake News. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/07/business/media/medias-next-challenge-overcoming-the-threat-of-fake-news.html?_r=0
Ruth, D. (2016, December 5). Ruth: Fake news causes real trouble. Retrieved from Tampa Bay Times: http://www.tampabay.com/opinion/columns/ruth-fake-news-causes-real-trouble/2305193
Savranksy, R. (2017, January 11). Trump berates CNN reporter: 'You are fake news'. Retrieved from The Hill: http://thehill.com/homenews/administration/313777-trump-berates-cnn-reporter-for-fake-news
Scott, M., & Eddy, M. (2017, February 20). Europe Combats a New Foe of Political Stability: Fake News. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/20/world/europe/europe-combats-a-new-foe-of-political-stability-fake-news.html?emc=edit_th_20170221&nl=todaysheadlines&nlid=34713153&_r=0
Silverman, C. (2016, November 16). This Analysis Shows How Viral Fake Election News Stories Outperformed Real News On Facebook. Retrieved from BuzzFeed: https://www.buzzfeed.com/craigsilverman/viral-fake-election-news-outperformed-real-news-on-facebook
Smith, A. G. (1998). Evaluation of Information Sources. Retrieved from Victoria University of Wellington: http:/ /www.vuw.ac.nz/-agsmith/evaln/evaln.htm
Stanford History Education Group. (2016). Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning. Retrieved from Stanford History Education Group: https://sheg.stanford.edu/upload/V3LessonPlans/Executive%20Summary%2011.21.16.pdf
Storksdieck, M. (2016). Critical information literacy as core skill for lifelong STEM learning in the 21st century: reflections on the desirability and feasibility for widespread science media education. Cultural Studies of Science Education(11), 167-182.
Storud, N. J., & Lee, J. K. (2013). Perceptions of Cable News Credibility. Mass Communication and Society, 16(1), 67-88.
Sun, Y. (2014). The Effect of self-censorship on news credibility: public’s perception of Hong Kong newspapers after the 1997 Handover. Dissertation, Iowa State University, Ames, IA.
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