Instagram and American Teens: Understanding Motives for Its Use and Relationship to Excessive Reassurance-Seeking and Interpersonal Rejection
Keywords:
Instagram, social media, media effects, teensAbstract
Drawing from the uses and gratifications theory, this study explored how excessive reassurance-seeking (the tendency to repeatedly request reassurance from close others about one’s lovability and worth) and interpersonal rejection relate to Instagram use among minors. Participating were pre-teens and teens, ages 12 to 17 years. Results from structural equation modeling analysis revealed that teens who were driven by gratifications of self-promotion and creativity were more likely to suffer from excessive reassurance-seeking. Excessive reassurance-seeking also predicted the number of hours they spent on Instagram. In addition, those who experienced interpersonal rejection were more likely to use Instagram to escape from reality.
References
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Ahadzadeh, A. S., Sharif, S. P., & Ong, F. S. (2017). Self-schema and self-discrepancy mediate the influence of Instagram usage on body image satisfaction among youth. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 8-16. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.011
Benazon, N. R. (2000). Predicting negative spousal attitudes toward depressed persons: A test of Coyne’s interpersonal model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 550-554.
Blomfield Neira, C. J., & Barber, B. L. (2014). Social networking site use: Linked to adolescents' social self-concept, self-esteem, and depressed mood. Australian Journal of Psychology, 66(1), 56-64. doi:10.1111/ajpy.12034
Charney, T., & Greenberg, B. (2001). Uses and gratifications of the internet. In C. Lin & D. Atkin (Eds.), Communication, technology and society: New media adoption and uses and gratifications (pp. 383–406). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.
Chen, G. (2011). Tweet this: A uses and gratifications perspective on how active twitter use gratifies a need to connect with others. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(2), 755-762. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.10.023
Chen, H., & Kim, Y. (2013). Problematic use of social network sites: The interactive relationship between gratifications sought and privacy concerns. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(11), 806-812. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0608
Coyne, J. C. (1976). Depression and the response of others. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 186-193. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.85.2.186
Dumas, T. M., Maxwell-Smith, M., Davis, J. P., & Giulietti, P. A. (2017). Lying or longing for likes? Narcissism, peer belonging, loneliness and normative versus deceptive like-seeking on Instagram in emerging adulthood. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 1-10. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.037
Frison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2017). Browsing, posting, and liking on Instagram: The reciprocal relationships between different types of Instagram use and adolescents' depressed mood. Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 20(10), 603-609. doi:10.1089/cyber.2017.0156
Greenwood, D. N. (2013). Fame, Facebook, and Twitter: How attitudes about fame predict frequency and nature of social media use. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2, 222-236. doi:10.1037/ppm0000013
Joiner, T. E., Jr. (1999). A test of the interpersonal theory of depression in youth psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 77-85. doi: 10.1023/A:1022666424731
Joiner, T. E., Jr., Alfano, M. S., & Metalsky, G. I. (1992). When depression breeds contempt: Reassurance seeking, self-esteem, and rejection of depressed college students by their roommates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 165-173. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.1.165
Joiner, T. E., Jr., & Katz, J. (1999). Contagion of depressive symptoms and mood: Meta-analytic review and explanations from cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal viewpoints. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 6, 149–164.
Joiner, T. E., Jr., & Metalsky, G. I. (1995). A prospective test of an integrative interpersonal theory of depression: A naturalistic study of college roommates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 778-788. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.778
Joiner, T. E., Jr., & Metalsky, G. I. (2001). Excessive reassurance seeking: Delineating a risk factor involved in the development of depressive symptoms. Psychological Science, 5, 371-378. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00369
Joiner, T. E., Jr., Metalsky, G. I., Gencoz, F., & Gencoz, T. (2001). The relative specificity of reassurance-seeking to depressive symptoms and diagnoses among clinical samples of adult and youth. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 22, 35-41. doi:10.1023/A:1011039406970
Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973-4). Uses and gratifications research. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37, 509-23. doi:10.1086/268109
Katz, E., Gurevitch, M., & Haas, H. (1973). On the use of the mass media for important
things. American Sociological Review, 38, 164-181. doi:10.2307/2094393
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's Depression Inventory manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Krause, A. E., North, A. C., & Heritage, B. (2014). The uses and gratifications of using Facebook music listening applications. Computers in Human Behavior, 39, 71-77. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.001
Lee, E., Lee, J., Moon, J. H., & Sung, Y. (2015). Pictures speak louder than words: Motivations for using Instagram. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18, 552-556. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2015.0157
Lenhart, A., & Page, D. (2015, April 9). Teens, social media & technology overview 2015. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/04/09/teens-social-mediatechnology-2015/
Lin, J., Lee, Y., Jin, Y., & Gilbreath, B. (2017). Personality traits, motivations, and emotional consequences of social media usage. Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 20(10), 615-623. doi:10.1089/cyber.2017.0043
McClintock, A. S., McCarrick, S. M., & Anderson, T. (2014). Excessive reassurance-seeking and interpersonal dependency: Assessing incremental associations. Personality and Individual Differences, 64, 94-97.
McLaughlin, K. A., & King, K. (2015). Developmental trajectories of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(2), 311-323. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9898-1
McQuail, D., Blumler, J. G., & Brown, J. R. (1972). The television audience: Revised perspective. In D. McQuail (Ed.), Sociology of mass communications (pp. 135-165). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Moreno, M. A., Jelenchick, L. A., Egan, K. G., Cox, E., Young, H., Gannon, K. E., & Becker, T. (2011). Feeling bad on Facebook: Depression disclosures by college students on a social networking site. Depression and Anxiety, 28(6), 447-455. doi:10.1002/da.20805
Mull, I. R., & Lee, S. (2014). “PIN” pointing the motivational dimensions behind Pinterest. Computers in Human Behavior, 33, 192-200. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.01.011
NORC at the University of Chicago. (2017, April 21). New survey: Snapchat and Instagram are most popular social media platforms among American teens: Black teens are the most active on social media and messaging apps. ScienceDaily. Retrieved July 9, 2017 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/04/170421113306.htm
Ong, E. Y., Ang, R. P., Ho, J. C., Lim, J. C., Goh, D. H., Lee, C. S., & Chua, A. Y. (2011).
Narcissism, extraversion and adolescents' self-presentation on Facebook. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 180-185. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.022
Paek, S. H., Abdulla, A. M., & Cramond, B. (2016). A meta-analysis of the relationship between three common psychopathologies—ADHD, anxiety, and depression—and indicators of little-c creativity. Gifted Child Quarterly, 60(2), 117-133.
Papacharissi, Z., & Rubin, A. M. (2000). Predictors of Internet use. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44, 175-196. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4402_2
Papworth, M. A., Jordan, G., Backhouse, C., Evans, N., Kent-Lemon, N., Morris, J., & Winchester, K. J. G. (2008). Artists’ vulnerability to psychopathology: Towards an integrative cognitive perspective. Journal of Creative Behavior, 42, 149–163.
Pittman, M. (2015). Creating, consuming, and Connecting: Examining the relationship between social media engagement and loneliness. The Journal of Social Media in Society, 4(1).
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., & James, E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among U.S. young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.013
Prinstein, M. J., Borelli, J. L., Cheah, C. L., Simon, V. A., & Aikins, J. W. (2005). Adolescent girls' interpersonal vulnerability to depressive symptoms: a longitudinal examination of reassurance-seeking and peer relationships. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114(4), 676-688. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.676
Rubin, A. M. (1986). Uses, gratifications, and media effects research. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 281–301). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Santosa, C. M., Strong, C. M., Nowakowska, C., Wang, P. W., Rennicke, C. M., & Ketter, T. (2007). Enhanced creativity in bipolar disorder patients: A controlled study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 100, 31–39. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.10.013
Sheldon, P. (2008). The relationship between unwillingness to communicate and students’ Facebook use. Journal of Media Psychology, 20, 67-75. doi: 10.1027/1864-1105.20.2.6
Sheldon, P., & Bryant, K. (2016). Instagram: Motives for its use and relationship to narcissism and contextual age. Computers in Human Behavior, 58, 89-97. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.059
Sheldon, P., Rauschnabel, P., Antony, M. G., & Car, S. (2017). A cross-cultural comparison of Croatian and American social network sites: Exploring cultural differences in motives for Instagram use. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 643-651. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.009
Starr, L. R., & Davila, J. (2008). Excessive reassurance seeking, depression, and interpersonal rejection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 762-775. doi: 10.1037/a0013866
Swann, W. B., Wenzlaff, R. M., & Tafarodi, R. W. (1992). Depression and the search for negative evaluations: More evidence of the role of self-verification strivings. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(2), 314-317. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.2.314
Toronto, E. (2009). Time out of mind: Dissociation in the virtual world. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 26(2), 117-133. doi:10.1037/a0015485
Weinstein, E. (2017). Adolescents' differential responses to social media browsing: Exploring causes and consequences for intervention. Computers in Human Behavior, 76396-405. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.038
Whiting, A., & Williams, D. (2013). Why people use social media: A uses and gratifications approach. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 16(4), 362-369. doi:10.1108/QMR-06-2013-0041
Ahadzadeh, A. S., Sharif, S. P., & Ong, F. S. (2017). Self-schema and self-discrepancy mediate the influence of Instagram usage on body image satisfaction among youth. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 8-16. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.011
Benazon, N. R. (2000). Predicting negative spousal attitudes toward depressed persons: A test of Coyne’s interpersonal model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 550-554.
Blomfield Neira, C. J., & Barber, B. L. (2014). Social networking site use: Linked to adolescents' social self-concept, self-esteem, and depressed mood. Australian Journal of Psychology, 66(1), 56-64. doi:10.1111/ajpy.12034
Charney, T., & Greenberg, B. (2001). Uses and gratifications of the internet. In C. Lin & D. Atkin (Eds.), Communication, technology and society: New media adoption and uses and gratifications (pp. 383–406). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.
Chen, G. (2011). Tweet this: A uses and gratifications perspective on how active twitter use gratifies a need to connect with others. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(2), 755-762. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.10.023
Chen, H., & Kim, Y. (2013). Problematic use of social network sites: The interactive relationship between gratifications sought and privacy concerns. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16(11), 806-812. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0608
Coyne, J. C. (1976). Depression and the response of others. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85, 186-193. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.85.2.186
Dumas, T. M., Maxwell-Smith, M., Davis, J. P., & Giulietti, P. A. (2017). Lying or longing for likes? Narcissism, peer belonging, loneliness and normative versus deceptive like-seeking on Instagram in emerging adulthood. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 1-10. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.037
Frison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2017). Browsing, posting, and liking on Instagram: The reciprocal relationships between different types of Instagram use and adolescents' depressed mood. Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 20(10), 603-609. doi:10.1089/cyber.2017.0156
Greenwood, D. N. (2013). Fame, Facebook, and Twitter: How attitudes about fame predict frequency and nature of social media use. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2, 222-236. doi:10.1037/ppm0000013
Joiner, T. E., Jr. (1999). A test of the interpersonal theory of depression in youth psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 77-85. doi: 10.1023/A:1022666424731
Joiner, T. E., Jr., Alfano, M. S., & Metalsky, G. I. (1992). When depression breeds contempt: Reassurance seeking, self-esteem, and rejection of depressed college students by their roommates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 165-173. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.1.165
Joiner, T. E., Jr., & Katz, J. (1999). Contagion of depressive symptoms and mood: Meta-analytic review and explanations from cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal viewpoints. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 6, 149–164.
Joiner, T. E., Jr., & Metalsky, G. I. (1995). A prospective test of an integrative interpersonal theory of depression: A naturalistic study of college roommates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 778-788. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.778
Joiner, T. E., Jr., & Metalsky, G. I. (2001). Excessive reassurance seeking: Delineating a risk factor involved in the development of depressive symptoms. Psychological Science, 5, 371-378. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00369
Joiner, T. E., Jr., Metalsky, G. I., Gencoz, F., & Gencoz, T. (2001). The relative specificity of reassurance-seeking to depressive symptoms and diagnoses among clinical samples of adult and youth. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 22, 35-41. doi:10.1023/A:1011039406970
Katz, E., Blumler, J. G., & Gurevitch, M. (1973-4). Uses and gratifications research. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 37, 509-23. doi:10.1086/268109
Katz, E., Gurevitch, M., & Haas, H. (1973). On the use of the mass media for important
things. American Sociological Review, 38, 164-181. doi:10.2307/2094393
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's Depression Inventory manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Krause, A. E., North, A. C., & Heritage, B. (2014). The uses and gratifications of using Facebook music listening applications. Computers in Human Behavior, 39, 71-77. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.001
Lee, E., Lee, J., Moon, J. H., & Sung, Y. (2015). Pictures speak louder than words: Motivations for using Instagram. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18, 552-556. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2015.0157
Lenhart, A., & Page, D. (2015, April 9). Teens, social media & technology overview 2015. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/04/09/teens-social-mediatechnology-2015/
Lin, J., Lee, Y., Jin, Y., & Gilbreath, B. (2017). Personality traits, motivations, and emotional consequences of social media usage. Cyberpsychology, Behavior & Social Networking, 20(10), 615-623. doi:10.1089/cyber.2017.0043
McClintock, A. S., McCarrick, S. M., & Anderson, T. (2014). Excessive reassurance-seeking and interpersonal dependency: Assessing incremental associations. Personality and Individual Differences, 64, 94-97.
McLaughlin, K. A., & King, K. (2015). Developmental trajectories of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43(2), 311-323. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9898-1
McQuail, D., Blumler, J. G., & Brown, J. R. (1972). The television audience: Revised perspective. In D. McQuail (Ed.), Sociology of mass communications (pp. 135-165). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
Moreno, M. A., Jelenchick, L. A., Egan, K. G., Cox, E., Young, H., Gannon, K. E., & Becker, T. (2011). Feeling bad on Facebook: Depression disclosures by college students on a social networking site. Depression and Anxiety, 28(6), 447-455. doi:10.1002/da.20805
Mull, I. R., & Lee, S. (2014). “PIN” pointing the motivational dimensions behind Pinterest. Computers in Human Behavior, 33, 192-200. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.01.011
NORC at the University of Chicago. (2017, April 21). New survey: Snapchat and Instagram are most popular social media platforms among American teens: Black teens are the most active on social media and messaging apps. ScienceDaily. Retrieved July 9, 2017 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/04/170421113306.htm
Ong, E. Y., Ang, R. P., Ho, J. C., Lim, J. C., Goh, D. H., Lee, C. S., & Chua, A. Y. (2011).
Narcissism, extraversion and adolescents' self-presentation on Facebook. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 180-185. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.022
Paek, S. H., Abdulla, A. M., & Cramond, B. (2016). A meta-analysis of the relationship between three common psychopathologies—ADHD, anxiety, and depression—and indicators of little-c creativity. Gifted Child Quarterly, 60(2), 117-133.
Papacharissi, Z., & Rubin, A. M. (2000). Predictors of Internet use. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 44, 175-196. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem4402_2
Papworth, M. A., Jordan, G., Backhouse, C., Evans, N., Kent-Lemon, N., Morris, J., & Winchester, K. J. G. (2008). Artists’ vulnerability to psychopathology: Towards an integrative cognitive perspective. Journal of Creative Behavior, 42, 149–163.
Pittman, M. (2015). Creating, consuming, and Connecting: Examining the relationship between social media engagement and loneliness. The Journal of Social Media in Society, 4(1).
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., & James, E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among U.S. young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.013
Prinstein, M. J., Borelli, J. L., Cheah, C. L., Simon, V. A., & Aikins, J. W. (2005). Adolescent girls' interpersonal vulnerability to depressive symptoms: a longitudinal examination of reassurance-seeking and peer relationships. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114(4), 676-688. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.676
Rubin, A. M. (1986). Uses, gratifications, and media effects research. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 281–301). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Santosa, C. M., Strong, C. M., Nowakowska, C., Wang, P. W., Rennicke, C. M., & Ketter, T. (2007). Enhanced creativity in bipolar disorder patients: A controlled study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 100, 31–39. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2006.10.013
Sheldon, P. (2008). The relationship between unwillingness to communicate and students’ Facebook use. Journal of Media Psychology, 20, 67-75. doi: 10.1027/1864-1105.20.2.6
Sheldon, P., & Bryant, K. (2016). Instagram: Motives for its use and relationship to narcissism and contextual age. Computers in Human Behavior, 58, 89-97. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.12.059
Sheldon, P., Rauschnabel, P., Antony, M. G., & Car, S. (2017). A cross-cultural comparison of Croatian and American social network sites: Exploring cultural differences in motives for Instagram use. Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 643-651. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.06.009
Starr, L. R., & Davila, J. (2008). Excessive reassurance seeking, depression, and interpersonal rejection: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 762-775. doi: 10.1037/a0013866
Swann, W. B., Wenzlaff, R. M., & Tafarodi, R. W. (1992). Depression and the search for negative evaluations: More evidence of the role of self-verification strivings. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(2), 314-317. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.2.314
Toronto, E. (2009). Time out of mind: Dissociation in the virtual world. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 26(2), 117-133. doi:10.1037/a0015485
Weinstein, E. (2017). Adolescents' differential responses to social media browsing: Exploring causes and consequences for intervention. Computers in Human Behavior, 76396-405. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.038
Whiting, A., & Williams, D. (2013). Why people use social media: A uses and gratifications approach. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 16(4), 362-369. doi:10.1108/QMR-06-2013-0041
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