Cyberactivism and Empowerment: Egyptian Women’s Advocacy to Combat Sexual Harassment
Keywords:
Advocacy, Cyberactivism, Egypt, Empowerment, Sexual Harassment, Women RightsAbstract
The active political participation and remarkable presence of women during Egypt’s January25th revolution in 2011 raised expectations that Egypt would witness improvement in women’s civic engagement and empowerment. Sexual harassment is a problem that is often ignored as many Egyptian women refuse to report sexual harassment due to a culture of silence and shame coupled with this taboo issue. This paper highlights the case of Egyptian women’s digital activism efforts and initiatives to combat sexual harassment empowered by digital tools and social media. Drawing from Egyptian women’s cyberactivism battle against sexual harassment, the paper argues that social media and online technology have empowered Egyptian women and provided them with virtual spaces to communicate and bring attention to such serious societal epidemic . The paper’s goal is to demonstrate how Egyptian women utilized social media and virtual online spaces as nontraditional advocacy tools to demand human dignity, and social justice rights.
References
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Anderson, M., & Shrum, W. (2007). Circumvention and Social Change: ICTs and the Discourse of Empowerment. Women's Studies in Communication, 30(2), 229-253.
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Digital media and the personalization of contentious politics. Information,
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Berkowitz, S. J. (2003). Can We Stand with You? Lessons from Women in Black for Global Feminist Activism. Women & Language, 26(1), 94.
Berenson, S. K. (2006). Freedom from violence as a human right: Toward a feminist politics of nonviolence. Thomas Jefferson Law Review, 28 (3), 327-354.
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Dynamics, and Implications." In Networked Self: Identity, Community,
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Chaudhry, I. (2014). #Hashtags for Change: Can Twitter Promote Social
Progress in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Communication
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Clarke, K. (2013). Aish, Huriyya, Karama Insaniyya: Framing and the 2011 Egyptian Uprising. European Political Science, 12(2), 197-214.
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https://harassmap.org/.
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Guntarik, O., & Trott, V. (2016). Changing media ecologies in Thailand: Women's online participation in the 2013/2014 Bangkok Protests. Austrian Journal of South-East Asian Studies, 9(2), 235-251.
Goering, E. M. (1996). For Yours Is the Power in the Story: The Empowerment of Women Organizational Actors through Storytelling. Women & Language, 19 (1), 47- 51.
Green, J. H. (2008). Measuring women's empowerment: development of a model. International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics, 4(3), 369-389.
Khamis, S., & Vaughn, K. (2013). Cyberactivism in the Tunisian and Egyptian Revolutions: Potentials, limitations, overlaps and divergences. Journal of African Media Studies, 5(1), 69-86.
Liew, K. K., Pang, N., & Chan, B. (2013). New media and new politics with old cemeteries and disused railways: advocacy goes digital in Singapore. Asian Journal of Communication, 23(6), 605-619.
Madu, R., & Moguluwa, S. C. (2013). Will the social media lenses be the
framework for sustainable development in rural Nigeria?Journal of
African Media Studies, 5(2), 237-254.
McCafferty, D. (2011). Activism vs. slacktivism. Communications of The
ACM, 54(12), 17-19.
Me Too Vision. (2018). Retrieved from https://metoomvmt.org/
McLean, J., Maalsen, S., & Grech, A. (2016). Learning about feminism in digital spaces: Online methodologies and participatory mapping. Australian Geographer, 47(2), 157-177.
Mogambi, H., & Ochola, A. P. (2015). Community radio and empowerment of women
among pastoralist communities in northern Kenya. Online Journal of
Communication and Media Technologies, 5(4), 29.
Neumayer, C., & Svensson, J. (2014). Activism and radical politics in the
digital age towards a typology. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, ISSN 1354-8565, E-ISSN 1748-7382.
Nunez Puente, S. (2011). Feminist cyberactivism: Violence against women, Internet politics, and Spanish feminist praxis online. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 25(3), 333-346.
Obar, J. A. (2014). Canadian Advocacy 2.0: An Analysis of Social Media Adoption and Perceived Affordances by Advocacy Groups Looking to Advance Activism in Canada. Canadian Journal of Communication, 39(2), 211-233.
Papa, M. J., & Singhal, A. (2000). Organizing for Social Change Through Cooperative Action: The [Dis]EmPOwering Dimensions of Women’s Communication. Communication Theory, 10(1), 90-123.
Penney, J. (2015). Social Media and Symbolic Action: Exploring Participation in the Facebook Red Equal Sign Profile Picture Campaign. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20(1), 52-66.
Sanderson, J. (2014). Shaping, Driving, Engaging, and Influencing in 140 Characters: Exploring Twitter's Role in a Labor Dispute. Qualitative Research Reports In Communication, 15(1), 43-50.
Shankar, A. V., Onyura, M., & Alderman, J. (2015). Agency-Based Empowerment Training Enhances Sales Capacity of Female Energy Entrepreneurs in Kenya. Journal of Health Communication (20), 67-75.
Štětka, V., & Mazák, J. (2014). Whither slacktivism? Political engagement
and social media use in the 2013 Czech Parliamentary elections.
Cyberpsychology, 8(3), 85-105. doi:10.5817/CP2014-3-7
Mattson, M. (2000). Empowerment Through Agency-Promoting Dialogue: An Explicit Application of Harm Reduction Theory to Reframe HIV Test Counseling. Journal of Health Communication, 5(4), 333-347.
Mogambi, H., & Ochola, A. P. (2015). Community Radio and Empowerment of Women among Pastoralist Communities in Northern Kenya. Online Journal of Communication & Media Technologies, 5(4), 29-63.
Obar, J. A. (2014). Canadian Advocacy 2.0: An Analysis of Social Media Adoption and Perceived Affordances by Advocacy Groups Looking to Advance Activism in Canada. Canadian Journal of Communication, 39(2), 211-233.
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Pettit, J. (2012). Empowerment and Participation: bridging the gap between understanding and practice. Institute of Development Studies, Sussex, UK. Accessed at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/egms/docs/2012/JethroPettit.pdf
Plush, T. (2013). Using visual storytelling for women's empowerment. Media Development, (3), 25-29.
Radsch, C. C., & Khamis, S. (2013). In Their Own Voice: Technologically mediated empowerment and transformation among young Arab women. Feminist Media Studies, 13(5), 881-890.
Rakha, M. (2008). Speaking of Sexual Harassment: Noha makes Egyptians proud! Accessed at: https://globalvoices.org/2008/10/24/speaking-of-sexual-harassment-
noha-makes-egyptians-proud/
Rivers, D. (June, 2012). UK journalist assaulted in Tahrir Square: 'Please make it stop'. Accessed at: https://www.cnn.com/2012/06/27/world/meast/egypt-journalist-assaulted/index.html
Robbins, M.., & Jamal, A. (2016). The state of social justice in the Arab world. The Arab uprisings of 2011 and beyond. Contemporary Readings in Law & Social Justice, 8(1), 127-157.
Salzarulo, A., Mundorf, N., Sakar, J., Terui, M., & Wen, L. (2015). Communication as a Tool for Empowerment: A Model for Resilience. China Media Research, 11(4), 78- 87.
Sheena (2012). Enter Your WCIT Digital Tech projects in the United Nations Youth Summit Awards. Accessed at: https://careermash.ca/blogs/united-nations-youth-summit-awards
Stavrositu, C., & Shyam Sundar, S. (2012). Does Blogging Empower Women? Exploring the Role of Agency and Community. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,17(4), 369-386.
Vaccari, C., Chadwick, A., & O'Loughlin, B. (2015). Dual Screening the Political: Media Events, Social Media, and Citizen Engagement. Journal of Communication, 65(6), 1041-1061.
Weiwu, Z., & Gearhart, S. (2015). The Effects of Internet use and Internet efficacy on offline and online engagement. Online Journal of Communication & Media Technologies, 5(4), 147-173.
Williams, S., Seed, J., & Mwau, A. (1994). Oxfam Gender Training Manual, Oxfam, Oxford. Accessed at: https://policypractice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/the-oxfam-
gender-training-manual-141359
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-repeatedly-raped-in-egypt-why-did-the-media-think-she-wasnt-2392068
Yonghwan, K. & Hsuan-Ting, C. (2015). Discussion network heterogeneity matters: Examining a moderated mediation model of social media use and civic engagement. International Journal of Communication, 9, 2344-2365.
Ahmad, A. L., Bromley, M., & Cokley, J. (2013). The social reality of blogging and empowerment among Malaysian bloggers. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication , 23(2), 210-221.
Akpabio, E. (2012). A Critical Evaluation of Gender Link's Utilization of New Media For Women Empowerment in Southern Africa. Global Media Journal: Mediterranean Edition, 7(1), 41-48.
Anderson, M., & Shrum, W. (2007). Circumvention and Social Change: ICTs and the Discourse of Empowerment. Women's Studies in Communication, 30(2), 229-253.
Aronson, A. B. (2001). Domesticity and Women's Collective Agency: Contribution and Collaboration in America's First Successful Women's Magazine. American Periodicals, 111-23.
Annie, M. K. (2008). Lessons for Indian Women: Empowerment of Women Seen Through Some Selected Women Characters of American Fiction. Language in India, 8(1), 4.
Asfour, N. (March, 2011). Cairo 6, 7, 8: Mohamed Diab on Sexual Harassment in Egypt. Accessed at: https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/cairo-6-7-8-mohamed-diab-on-sexual-harassment-in-egypt
Ayish, M. I. (2010). Understanding Arab women's role in media industries - An empowerment-based perspective. Journal of Arab & Muslim Media Research, 3(3), 191-206. doi:10.1386/jammr.3.3.191_1
Baruh, L. (2015). Social media and citizen engagement in crises. Interactions: Studies In Communication & Culture, 6(2), 131-139. doi:10.1386/iscc.6.2.131_2
Bennett, W. L & Segerberg, A. (2012). The logic of connective action:
Digital media and the personalization of contentious politics. Information,
Communication & Society 15(5), 739-768.
Berkowitz, S. J. (2003). Can We Stand with You? Lessons from Women in Black for Global Feminist Activism. Women & Language, 26(1), 94.
Berenson, S. K. (2006). Freedom from violence as a human right: Toward a feminist politics of nonviolence. Thomas Jefferson Law Review, 28 (3), 327-354.
Boyd, D. (2010). "Social Network Sites as Networked Publics: Affordances
Dynamics, and Implications." In Networked Self: Identity, Community,
And Culture on Social Network Sites (ed. Zizi Papacharissi), pp. 39-58.
Braun, V. and Clarke, V. (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3 (2), 77-101. Accessed at:
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.477.1106&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Brockers, E. (2018). Me Too founder Tarana Burke: ‘You have to use your privilege to serve other people’. Retrieved from:
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/15/me-too-founder-tarana-burke-women-sexual-assault
Chamberlain, K. (2004). Redefining Cyberactivism: The Future of Online Project. Review of Communication, 4(3/4), 139-146. doi:10.1080/1535859042000289397
Chaudhry, I. (2014). #Hashtags for Change: Can Twitter Promote Social
Progress in Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Communication
(19328036), 8943-961.
Clarke, K. (2013). Aish, Huriyya, Karama Insaniyya: Framing and the 2011 Egyptian Uprising. European Political Science, 12(2), 197-214.
Dougal, D. (March, 2011). ‘Cairo 6, 7, 8’ exposes sexual violence in a changing Egypt. Accessed at: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/need-to-know/the-daily-need/%E2%80%98cairo-6-7-8%E2%80%99-exposes-sexual-violence-in-a-changing-egypt/8294/
ECWR, The Egyptian Center for Women's Rights, (2008). " Clouds in Egypt's sky": Sexual harassment: from verbal harassment to rape : a sociological study. Accessed at: http://egypt.unfpa.org/Images/Publication/2010_03/6eeeb05a-3040-42d2-9e1c-2bd2e1ac8cac.pdf
Enck, S. M., & McDaniel, B. A. (2015). “I Want Something Better for My Life”: Personal Narratives of Incarcerated Women and Performances of Agency. Text & Performance Quarterly, 35(1), 43-61.
Harrasmap, (2010). Stop sexual harassment, together. Accessed at:
https://harassmap.org/.
Hussein, A. (2008). Stand up for your rights, says victorious Noha Roushdy. Accessed:https://dailynewsegypt.com/2008/10/24/stand-up-for-your-rights-says-victorious-noha-roushdy/
Hudson,V. M., Ballif-Spanvill, B., Caprioli, M., & Emmett, C.F. (2014). Sex and World Peace. Columbia University Press: New York.
InterWorldStats.com. (2016). Accessed at: http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm
Gatua, M. W., Patton, T. O., & Brown, M. R. (2010). Giving Voice to Invisible Women: “FIRE” as Model of a Successful Women's Community Radio in Africa. Howard Journal of Communications, 21(2), 164-181.
Guntarik, O., & Trott, V. (2016). Changing media ecologies in Thailand: Women's online participation in the 2013/2014 Bangkok Protests. Austrian Journal of South-East Asian Studies, 9(2), 235-251.
Goering, E. M. (1996). For Yours Is the Power in the Story: The Empowerment of Women Organizational Actors through Storytelling. Women & Language, 19 (1), 47- 51.
Green, J. H. (2008). Measuring women's empowerment: development of a model. International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics, 4(3), 369-389.
Khamis, S., & Vaughn, K. (2013). Cyberactivism in the Tunisian and Egyptian Revolutions: Potentials, limitations, overlaps and divergences. Journal of African Media Studies, 5(1), 69-86.
Liew, K. K., Pang, N., & Chan, B. (2013). New media and new politics with old cemeteries and disused railways: advocacy goes digital in Singapore. Asian Journal of Communication, 23(6), 605-619.
Madu, R., & Moguluwa, S. C. (2013). Will the social media lenses be the
framework for sustainable development in rural Nigeria?Journal of
African Media Studies, 5(2), 237-254.
McCafferty, D. (2011). Activism vs. slacktivism. Communications of The
ACM, 54(12), 17-19.
Me Too Vision. (2018). Retrieved from https://metoomvmt.org/
McLean, J., Maalsen, S., & Grech, A. (2016). Learning about feminism in digital spaces: Online methodologies and participatory mapping. Australian Geographer, 47(2), 157-177.
Mogambi, H., & Ochola, A. P. (2015). Community radio and empowerment of women
among pastoralist communities in northern Kenya. Online Journal of
Communication and Media Technologies, 5(4), 29.
Neumayer, C., & Svensson, J. (2014). Activism and radical politics in the
digital age towards a typology. Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, ISSN 1354-8565, E-ISSN 1748-7382.
Nunez Puente, S. (2011). Feminist cyberactivism: Violence against women, Internet politics, and Spanish feminist praxis online. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 25(3), 333-346.
Obar, J. A. (2014). Canadian Advocacy 2.0: An Analysis of Social Media Adoption and Perceived Affordances by Advocacy Groups Looking to Advance Activism in Canada. Canadian Journal of Communication, 39(2), 211-233.
Papa, M. J., & Singhal, A. (2000). Organizing for Social Change Through Cooperative Action: The [Dis]EmPOwering Dimensions of Women’s Communication. Communication Theory, 10(1), 90-123.
Penney, J. (2015). Social Media and Symbolic Action: Exploring Participation in the Facebook Red Equal Sign Profile Picture Campaign. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 20(1), 52-66.
Sanderson, J. (2014). Shaping, Driving, Engaging, and Influencing in 140 Characters: Exploring Twitter's Role in a Labor Dispute. Qualitative Research Reports In Communication, 15(1), 43-50.
Shankar, A. V., Onyura, M., & Alderman, J. (2015). Agency-Based Empowerment Training Enhances Sales Capacity of Female Energy Entrepreneurs in Kenya. Journal of Health Communication (20), 67-75.
Štětka, V., & Mazák, J. (2014). Whither slacktivism? Political engagement
and social media use in the 2013 Czech Parliamentary elections.
Cyberpsychology, 8(3), 85-105. doi:10.5817/CP2014-3-7
Mattson, M. (2000). Empowerment Through Agency-Promoting Dialogue: An Explicit Application of Harm Reduction Theory to Reframe HIV Test Counseling. Journal of Health Communication, 5(4), 333-347.
Mogambi, H., & Ochola, A. P. (2015). Community Radio and Empowerment of Women among Pastoralist Communities in Northern Kenya. Online Journal of Communication & Media Technologies, 5(4), 29-63.
Obar, J. A. (2014). Canadian Advocacy 2.0: An Analysis of Social Media Adoption and Perceived Affordances by Advocacy Groups Looking to Advance Activism in Canada. Canadian Journal of Communication, 39(2), 211-233.
Oxaal, Z. & Baden, S. (1997). Gender and empowerment: definitions, approaches and implications for policy. Briefing prepared for the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Accessed at: http://bridge.ids.ac.uk/sites/bridge.ids.ac.uk/files/reports/re40c.pdf
Page, N. & Czuba, C.E. (1999). Empowerment: What is it? Extension Journal, 37(5), Accessed at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1999october/comm1.php
Pettit, J. (2012). Empowerment and Participation: bridging the gap between understanding and practice. Institute of Development Studies, Sussex, UK. Accessed at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/egms/docs/2012/JethroPettit.pdf
Plush, T. (2013). Using visual storytelling for women's empowerment. Media Development, (3), 25-29.
Radsch, C. C., & Khamis, S. (2013). In Their Own Voice: Technologically mediated empowerment and transformation among young Arab women. Feminist Media Studies, 13(5), 881-890.
Rakha, M. (2008). Speaking of Sexual Harassment: Noha makes Egyptians proud! Accessed at: https://globalvoices.org/2008/10/24/speaking-of-sexual-harassment-
noha-makes-egyptians-proud/
Rivers, D. (June, 2012). UK journalist assaulted in Tahrir Square: 'Please make it stop'. Accessed at: https://www.cnn.com/2012/06/27/world/meast/egypt-journalist-assaulted/index.html
Robbins, M.., & Jamal, A. (2016). The state of social justice in the Arab world. The Arab uprisings of 2011 and beyond. Contemporary Readings in Law & Social Justice, 8(1), 127-157.
Salzarulo, A., Mundorf, N., Sakar, J., Terui, M., & Wen, L. (2015). Communication as a Tool for Empowerment: A Model for Resilience. China Media Research, 11(4), 78- 87.
Sheena (2012). Enter Your WCIT Digital Tech projects in the United Nations Youth Summit Awards. Accessed at: https://careermash.ca/blogs/united-nations-youth-summit-awards
Stavrositu, C., & Shyam Sundar, S. (2012). Does Blogging Empower Women? Exploring the Role of Agency and Community. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,17(4), 369-386.
Vaccari, C., Chadwick, A., & O'Loughlin, B. (2015). Dual Screening the Political: Media Events, Social Media, and Citizen Engagement. Journal of Communication, 65(6), 1041-1061.
Weiwu, Z., & Gearhart, S. (2015). The Effects of Internet use and Internet efficacy on offline and online engagement. Online Journal of Communication & Media Technologies, 5(4), 147-173.
Williams, S., Seed, J., & Mwau, A. (1994). Oxfam Gender Training Manual, Oxfam, Oxford. Accessed at: https://policypractice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/the-oxfam-
gender-training-manual-141359
Wilson, S. (April, 2011). Lara Logan confirms she was brutally and repeatedly raped in Egypt: Why did the media think she wasn't?. Accessed at: http://www.laweekly.com/news/lara-logan-confirms-she-was-brutally-and
-repeatedly-raped-in-egypt-why-did-the-media-think-she-wasnt-2392068
Yonghwan, K. & Hsuan-Ting, C. (2015). Discussion network heterogeneity matters: Examining a moderated mediation model of social media use and civic engagement. International Journal of Communication, 9, 2344-2365.
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