Political Disagreement and Uncertainty: Examining the Interplay of Political Talk and News Use in Online and Offline Environments
Keywords:
political disagreement, uncertainty, social media, news use, political talk, political discussion, communication mediation modelAbstract
Contrary to popular arguments about “echo chambers” and “filter bubbles,” evidence shows that social media tend to promote exposure to political disagreement. But if this disagreement has little to no effect on individuals’ attitudes and opinions, the democratic benefits of this increased exposure could be limited. This study empirically investigates whether exposure to political disagreement in social media versus face-to-face settings has differential effects on individuals’ uncertainty about their political opinions and beliefs. In doing so, the paper accounts for the interplay in news use and political discussion in these two settings. The results show (a) differences in the relationship between political disagreement and uncertainty in social media and face-to-face settings and (b) considerable overlap in discussion and reflection processes between these two settings. Results are discussed in light of ongoing conversations about the democratic benefits of political disagreement.
References
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Barnidge, M. (2018). Social affect and political disagreement on social media. Social Media + Society, 4(3), 1-12. doi: 10.1177/2056305118797721
Bimber, B. (2008). The internet and political fragmentation. In P. F. Nardulli (Ed.), Domestic perspectives on contemporary democracy (pp. 155-170). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Brashers, D. E. (2001). Communication and uncertainty management. Journal of Communication, 51(3), 477-497. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2001.tb02892.x
Brundidge, J. (2010). Encountering “difference” in the contemporary public sphere: The contribution of the Internet to the heterogeneity of political discussion networks. Journal of Communication, 60(4), 680-700. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01509.x
Cappella, J. N. (2002). Cynicism and social trust in the new media environment. Journal of Communication, 52(1), 229-241. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2002.tb02541.x
Cho, J., Shah, D. V., McLeod, J. M., McLeod, D. M., Scholl, R. M., & Gotlieb, M. R. (2009). Campaigns, reflection, and deliberation: Advancing an O‐S‐R‐O‐R model of communication effects. Communication Theory, 19(1), 66-88. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2008.01333.x
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Cooper, J., & Fazio, R. H. (1984). A new look at dissonance theory Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 17, 229-266. doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60121-5
Eliasoph, N. (1998). Avoiding politics: How Americans produce apathy in everyday life. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends:” Social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143-1168. doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x
Ellison, N. B., Vitak, J., Steinfield, C., Gray, R., & Lampe, C. (2011). Negotiating privacy concerns and social capital needs in a social media environment. In S. Trepte & L. Reinecke (Eds.), Privacy online: Perspectives on privacy and self-disclosure in the social web (pp. 19-32). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Eveland, W. P., & Hively, M. H. (2009). Political discussion frequency, network size, and “heterogeneity” of discussion as predictors of political knowledge and participation. Journal of Communication, 59(2), 205-224. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01412.x
Eveland, W. P., Hutchens, M. J., & Shen, F. (2009). Exposure, attention, or “use” of news? Assessing aspects of the reliability and validity of a central concept in political communication research. Communication Methods and Measures, 3(4), 223-244. doi:10.1080/19312450903378925
Festinger, L. (1950). Informal social communication. Psychological Review, 57(5), 271. doi:10/1037/h0056932
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance (Vol. 2). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Festinger, L. (1962). Cognitive dissonance. Scientific American, 207(4), 93-106.
Gil de Zúñiga, H., Bachmann, I., Hsu, S.-H., & Brundidge, J. (2013). Expressive versus consumptive blog use: Implications for interpersonal discussion and political participation. International Journal of Communication, 7, 22.
Gil de Zúñiga, H., Barnidge, M., & Diehl, T. (2018). Political persuasion on social media: A moderated moderation model of political disagreement and civil reasoning. The Information Society, 34(5), 302-315. doi: 10.1080/01972243.2018.1497743
Greenwood, S., Perrin, A., & Duggan, M. (2016). Social media update 2016. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/11/11/social-media-update-2016/
Hogg, M. A. (2000). Subjective uncertainty reduction through self-categorization: A motivational theory of social identity processes. European Review of Social Psychology, 11(1), 223-255. doi:10.1080/14792772043000040
Hogg, M. A., & Reid, S. A. (2006). Social identity, self‐categorization, and the communication of group norms. Communication Theory, 16(1), 7-30. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2006.00003.x
Hong, Y., & Rojas, H. (2016). Agreeing not to disagree: Iterative versus episodic forms of political participatory behaviors. International Journal of Communication, 10, ISSN: 1932-8036
Huckfeldt, R., Johnson, P. E., & Sprague, J. (2004). Political disagreement: The survival of diverse opinions within communication networks. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Huckfeldt, R., Mendez, M., & Osborn, T. (2004). Disagreement, ambivalence, and engagement: The political consequences of heterogeneous networks. Political Psychology, 25(1), 65-95. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00357.x
Huckfeldt, R. R., & Sprague, J. (1995). Citizens, politics and social communication: Information and influence in an election campaign. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jung, N., Kim, Y., & Gil de Zúniga, H. (2011). The mediating role of knowledge and efficacy in the effects of communication on political participation. Mass Communication and Society, 14(4), 407-430. doi:10.1080/15205436.2010.496135
Kandel, D. B. (1978). Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of Sociology, 84(2), 427-436. doi:10.1086/226792
Kenski, K., & Stroud, N. J. (2006). Connections between Internet use and political efficacy, knowledge, and participation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 50(2), 173-192. doi:10.1207/s15506878jobem5002_1
Kim, Y., Hsu, S. H., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2013). Influence of social media use on discussion network heterogeneity and civic engagement: The moderating role of personality traits. Journal of Communication, 63(3), 498-516. doi:10.1111/jcom.12034
Knobloch, L. K., Satterlee, K. L., & DiDomenico, S. M. (2010). Relational uncertainty predicting appraisals of face threat in courtship: Integrating uncertainty reduction theory and politeness theory. Communication Research, 37(3), 303-334. doi:10.1177/0093650210362527
Knobloch, L. K., & Solomon, D. H. (1999). Measuring the sources and content of relational uncertainty. Communication Studies, 50(4), 261-278. doi:10.1080/10510979909388499
Kuang, K., & Wilson, S. R. (2017). A meta‐analysis of uncertainty and information management in illness contexts. Journal of Communication, 67(3), 378-401. doi:10.1111/jcom.12299
Kwak, N., Williams, A. E., Wang, X., & Lee, H. (2005). Talking politics and engaging politics: An examination of the interactive relationships between structural features of political talk and discussion engagement. Communication Research, 32(1), 87-111. doi:10.1177/0093650204271400
Lee, J. K., Choi, J., Kim, C., & Kim, Y. (2014). Social media, network heterogeneity, and opinion polarization. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 702-722. doi:10.1111/jcom.12077
Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (1998). The role of feasibility and desirability considerations in near and distant future decisions: A test of temporal construal theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 5. doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.5
Lu, Y., Heatherly, K. A., & Lee, J. K. (2016). Cross-cutting exposure on social networking sites: The effects of SNS discussion disagreement on political participation. Computers in Human Behavior, 59, 74-81. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.030
Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one's social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302-318. doi:10.1177/0146167292183006
MacKuen, M. (1990). Speaking of politics: Individual conversational choice, public opinion, and the prospects for deliberative democracy. In J. Ferejohn & J. Kuklinski (Eds.), Information and democratic processes (pp. 59-99). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Mansbridge, J. (1999). Everyday talk in the deliberative system. In S. Macedo (ed.), Deliberative politics: Essays on democracy and disagreement (pp. 1-211. New York: Oxford University Press.
Markus, H., & Zajonc, R. B. (1985). The cognitive perspective in social psychology. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 137-230). New York: Random House.
Maurer, M., & Holbach, T. (2016). Taking online search queries as an indicator of the public agenda: The role of public uncertainty. Journalism &
Mass Communication Quarterly, 93(3), 572-586. doi:10.1177/1077699015610072
McGarty, C., Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., & Haslam, S. A. (1993). The creation of uncertainty in the influence process: The roles of stimulus information and disagreement with similar others. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23(1), 17-38. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420230103
McLeod, D. M., Kosicki, G. M., & McLeod, J. M. (2002). Resurveying the boundaries of political communications effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research (pp. 215-267).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McLeod, J. M., Scheufele, D. A., & Moy, P. (1999). Community, communication, and participation: The role of mass media and interpersonal discussion in local political participation. Political Communication, 16(3), 315-336. doi:10.1080/105846099198659
McLeod, J. M., Zubric, J., Keum, H., Deshpande, S., Cho, J., Stein, S., & Heather, M. (2001). Reflecting and connecting: Testing a communication mediation model of civic participation. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Washington, DC.
Mutz, D. C. (2002). The consequences of cross-cutting networks for political participation. American Journal of Political Science, 838-855. doi:10.2307/3088437
Mutz, D. C. (2006). Hearing the other side: Deliberative versus participatory democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Park, C. S. (2015). Pathways to expressive and collective participation: Usage patterns, political efficacy, and political participation in social networking sites. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 59(4), 698-716. doi:10.1080/08838151.2015.1093480
Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1998). Attitude change: Multiple roles for persuasion variables. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.). The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 323–390). New York: McGraw Hill.
Price, V., Cappella, J. N., & Nir, L. (2002). Does disagreement contribute to more deliberative opinion? Political Communication, 19(1), 95-112. doi:10.1080/105846002317246506
Rojas, H. (2015). Egocentric publics and perceptions of the worlds around us. In H. Gil de Zúñiga (Ed.), New technologies and civic engagement: New agendas in communication (pp. 93-102). New York: Routledge.
Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2004). A beginner's guide to structural equation modeling. NewYork: Routledge.
Shah, D. V., Cho, J., Eveland, W. P., & Kwak, N. (2005). Information and expression in a digital age: Modeling Internet effects on civic participation. Communication Research, 32(5), 531-565. doi:10.1177/0093650205279209
Shah, D. V., Cho, J., Nah, S., Gotlieb, M. R., Hwang, H., Lee, N. J., . . . McLeod, D. M. (2007). Campaign ads, online messaging, and participation: Extending the communication mediation model. Journal of Communication, 57(4), 676-703. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00363.x
Shah, D. V., McLeod, D. M., Rojas, H., Cho, J., Wagner, M. W., & Friedland, L. A. (2017). Revising the communication mediation model for a new political communication ecology. Human Communication Research, 43(4), 491-504. doi:10.1111/hcre.12115
Silva, K. C. d. (2019). Brexit uncertainty Is changing our communication behaviour. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/karencorreiadasilva/2019/01/22/brexit-uncertainty-is-changing-our-communication-behaviour/#38219ec65ef3
Stroud, N. J. (2010). Polarization and partisan selective exposure. Journal of Communication, 60(3), 556-576. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2010.01497.x
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