Facebook Reactions: How are They Used and Which Personality Factors Predict their Use?
Keywords:
Facebook, Facebook reactions, emotional reactions, online communication, many-to-one communication, personality, narcissismAbstract
The recent expansion of Facebook’s ‘like’ to six emotional reactions (love, haha, wow, sad, angry) represents the first update related to feedback, allowing users to respond to shared content, in almost a decade. We surveyed 260 Facebook users to investigate how reactions are utilized and what type of online content (status updates, pictures, links, timehops and events) they are used to respond to. We also measured Big Five personality and narcissism. Users were most likely to react using like, followed by positive reactions (love, haha, wow), and were least likely to employ the negative reactions sad and angry. Status updates and pictures were the types of content most likely to be responded to, and events least likely. Neuroticism, extraversion and openness positively predicted, and narcissism negatively predicted, utilization of reactions, and likelihood of responding. Results are discussed in relation to established online norms and the affordances of Facebook features.References
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Bergman, S.M., Fearrington, M.E., Davenport, S.W., & Bergman, J. (2011). Millennials, narcissism, and social networking: What narcissists do on social networking sites and why. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 706–711. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.022
Bohnert, D. & Ross, W.H. (2010). The influence of social networking web sites on the evaluation of job candidates. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 13(3), 341-347. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2009.0193
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Chiou, W-B., Chen, S-W., & Liao, D-C. (2014). Does Facebook promote self-interest? Enactment of indiscriminate one-to-many communication on online social networking sites decreases prosocial behaviour. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 17(2), 68-73. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0035
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Chou H-T.G. & Lee, C-C. (2013). Enactment of one-to-many communication may induce self-focused attention that leads to diminished perspective taking: The case of Facebook. Judgment and Decision Making, 8(3), 372-380.
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Eftekhar, A., Fullwood, C., & Morris, N. (2014). Capturing personality from Facebook photos and photo-related activities: How much exposure do you need? Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 162-170. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.048
Ehrenberg, A., Juckes, S., White, K.M., & Walsh, S.P. (2008). Personality and self esteem as predictors of young people’s technology use. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11(6), 739–741. doi: 10.1089/cpb.2008.0030
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Fay, N., Garrod, S., & Carletta, J. (2000). Group discussion as interactive dialogue or as serial monologue: the influence of group size. Psychological Science, 11, 481–486. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00292
Goldberg, L.R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 26-42.
Gosling, S.D., Augustine, A.A., Vazire, S., Holtzan, N., & Gaddis, S. (2011). Manifestation of personality in Online Social Networks: Self-reported Facebook-related behaviors and observable profile information. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 14, 483–488. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2010.0087
Haythornthwaite, C. (2005). Social networks and Internet connectivity effects. Information Communication & Society, 8(2), 125–147. doi: 10.1080/13691180500146185
John, O.P. & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In LA Pervin and OP John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 102-138). New York: Guilford.
Judge, T.A. & Bono, J.E. (2000). Five-factor model of personality and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 751-765. Doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.751.
Kashdan, T.B. (2002). Social anxiety dimensions, neuroticism, and the contours of positive psychological functioning. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 789–810.
Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J., Helgeson, V., & Crawford, A. (2002). Internet paradox revisited. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 49-74. doi: 10.1111/1540-4560.00248
Leary, M.R. & Allen, A.B. (2011). Personality & persona: Personality processes in self-presentation. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1191-1218. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00704.x
Lee, S., Hansen, S.S., & Lee, J.K. (2016). What makes us click “like” on Facebook? Examining psychological, technological, and motivational factors on virtual endorsement, Computer Communications. 73(1), 332 - 341. doi: 10.1016/j.comcom.2015.08.002
Lee-Won, R.J., Shim, M., & Joo, Y.K. (2014). Who puts the best ‘‘face’’ forward on Facebook?: positive self-presentation in online social networking and the role of self-consciousness, actual-to-total Friends ratio, and culture. Computers in Human Behavior, 39, 413–423. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.08.007
Loomer, J. (2012) Detailed history of Facebook changes 2004012. Retrieved from: http://www.jonloomer.com/2012/05/06/history-of-facebook-changes/
McCrae, R.R. & Costa, P.T. (1990). Personality in adulthood. New York: Guilford.
McCrae, R.R. & Costa, P.T. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory perspective. New York: The Guilford Press.
McCrae, R.R. & John, O.P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175-215.
Moore, K. & McElroy, J.C. (2012). The influence of personality on Facebook usage, wall postings, and regret. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 267–274. Doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2011.09.009.
Mor, N. & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 638–662. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638
Mullins J. (2016) This is how Facebook has changed over the past 12 years. Retrieved from: http://www.eonline.com/uk/news/736977/this-is-how-facebook-has-changed-over-the-past-12-years
Norman, W.T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574-583.
Peckham, J. (2016) History of Facebook: All the major updates and changes from 2004-2016. Retrieved from: http://www.knowyourmobile.com/apps/facebook/21807/history-facebook-all-major-updates-changes-2004-2016
Raskin, R. & Terry, H. (1988). A principal-components analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 890–902. Doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.5.890.
Riggo, H.R. & Riggo, R.E. (2002). Emotional expressiveness, extraversion, and neuroticism: A meta-analysis. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 26(4), 195-218.
Ross, C., Orr, E.S., Sisic, M., Arseneault, J.M., Simmering, M.G., & Orr, R. (2009). Personality and motivations associated with Facebook use. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 578–586. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.024
Ryan, T. & Xenos, S. (2011). Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage. Computers in Human Behaviors, 27, 1658–1664. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.004
Scott, G.G., Boyle, E., Czerniawska, K., & Courtney, A. (2018). Posting photos on Facebook: The impact of narcissism, social anxiety, loneliness, and shyness. Personality and Individual Differences, 133, 67-72. Doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.039
Scott, G.G. & Hand, C.J. (2016). Motivation determined Facebook viewing strategy: An eye movement analysis. Computers in Human Behaviour, 56, 267-280. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.029
Scott, G.G. & Ravenscroft, K. (2017). Bragging on Facebook: The interaction of content source and focus in online impression formation. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 20(1), 58-63. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2016.0311
Scott, G.G., Sinclair, J., Short, E., & Bruce, G. (2014). It’s not what you say, it’s how you say it: Language use on Facebook impacts employability but not attractiveness. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 17(8), 562-566. Doi: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0584
Seidman, G. (2013). Self-presentation and belonging on Facebook: How personality influences social media use and motivations. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 402–407. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.009
Tosun, L.P. (2012). Motives for Facebook use and expressing “true self” on the internet. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 1510-1517. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.03.018
Vazire, S., Naumann, L.P., Rentfrow, P.J., & Gosling, S.D. (2008). Portrait of a narcissist: Manifestations of narcissism in physical appearance. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1439–1447. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.007
Wilson, K., Fornasier, S., & White, K.M. (2010). Psychological predictors of young adults’ use of social networking sites. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 13(2): 173-177. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2009.0094
Xia, M., Huang, Y., Duan, W., & Whinston, A.B. (2007). Implicit many-to-one communication in online communities. Communities and Technologies 2007: Proceedings of the Third Communities and Technologies Conference, Michigan State University 2007: 265-174.
Albanesius, C. (2014). 10 Years Later: Facebook’s Design Revolution. Retrieved from: http://www.pcmag.com/feature/320360/10-years-later-facebook-s-design-evolution/13
Ambady, N. & Skowronski, J. (2008). First impressions. New York: Guilford.
Ames, D.R., Rose, P., & Anderson, C.P. (2006). The NPI-16 as a short measure of narcissism. Journal of Research in Personality, 40, 440-450. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2005.03.002
Amichai-Hamburger, Y. & Vinitzky, G. (2010). Social Network Use and Personality. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1289-1295. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.018
Amichai-Hamburger, Y., Wainapel, G., & Fox, S. (2002). ‘‘On the Internet No One Knows I’m an Introvert”: Extraversion, neuroticism, and Internet interaction. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 5(2): 125–128. doi: 10.1089/109493102753770507
Andreassen, C.S., Pallesen, S., & Griffiths, M.D. (2017). The relationship between addictive use of social media, narcissism, and self-esteem: Findings from a large national survey. Addictive Behaviors 64, 287–293. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.03.006
Bachrach, Y., Kosinski, M., Graepel, T., Kohli, P., & Stillwell, D. (2012). Personality and Patterns of Facebook Usage. Proceedings from ACM Web Sciences 2012, ACM Conference on Web Sciences, Evanston, IL, USA.
Bergman, S.M., Fearrington, M.E., Davenport, S.W., & Bergman, J. (2011). Millennials, narcissism, and social networking: What narcissists do on social networking sites and why. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 706–711. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.022
Bohnert, D. & Ross, W.H. (2010). The influence of social networking web sites on the evaluation of job candidates. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 13(3), 341-347. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2009.0193
Boyd, D.M. & Ellison, N.B. (2007). Social networking sites: definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13, 210–230. Doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x
Buffardi, L.E. & Campbell, W.K. (2008). Narcissism and Social Networking Web Sites. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1303-1314. doi: 10.1177/0146167208320061
Carpenter, J.M., Green, M.C., & LaFlam, J. (2011). People or profiles: Individual differences in online social networking use. Personality & Individual Differences, 50, 538-541. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2010.11.006
Chiou, W-B., Chen, S-W., & Liao, D-C. (2014). Does Facebook promote self-interest? Enactment of indiscriminate one-to-many communication on online social networking sites decreases prosocial behaviour. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 17(2), 68-73. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0035
Chou, H-TG. & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: the impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 15, 17–121. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2011.0324
Chou H-T.G. & Lee, C-C. (2013). Enactment of one-to-many communication may induce self-focused attention that leads to diminished perspective taking: The case of Facebook. Judgment and Decision Making, 8(3), 372-380.
Collins T (May, 2017) Emoji lovers rejoice! Facebook expands its reactions feature to comments. Retrieved from: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-4472518/Facebook-expands-reactions-feature-comments.html
Correa, T., Bachmann, I., Willard Hensley, A., & Gil de Zúñiga, H. (2013). Personality and social media use. In E.Y. Li & C. Evans (Eds.) Organizations and social networking: Utilizing social media to engage consumers. Hershey: IGI Global.
Costa, P.T. & McCrae, R.R. (1985). The NEO personality inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Digman, J.M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology, 441, 417-440.
Eftekhar, A., Fullwood, C., & Morris, N. (2014). Capturing personality from Facebook photos and photo-related activities: How much exposure do you need? Computers in Human Behavior, 37, 162-170. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.048
Ehrenberg, A., Juckes, S., White, K.M., & Walsh, S.P. (2008). Personality and self esteem as predictors of young people’s technology use. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11(6), 739–741. doi: 10.1089/cpb.2008.0030
Facebook Newsroom (2019). Retrieved from: https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2017/06/two-billion-people-coming-together-on-facebook/
Fay, N., Garrod, S., & Carletta, J. (2000). Group discussion as interactive dialogue or as serial monologue: the influence of group size. Psychological Science, 11, 481–486. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00292
Goldberg, L.R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 26-42.
Gosling, S.D., Augustine, A.A., Vazire, S., Holtzan, N., & Gaddis, S. (2011). Manifestation of personality in Online Social Networks: Self-reported Facebook-related behaviors and observable profile information. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 14, 483–488. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2010.0087
Haythornthwaite, C. (2005). Social networks and Internet connectivity effects. Information Communication & Society, 8(2), 125–147. doi: 10.1080/13691180500146185
John, O.P. & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In LA Pervin and OP John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 102-138). New York: Guilford.
Judge, T.A. & Bono, J.E. (2000). Five-factor model of personality and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 751-765. Doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.751.
Kashdan, T.B. (2002). Social anxiety dimensions, neuroticism, and the contours of positive psychological functioning. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 789–810.
Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J., Helgeson, V., & Crawford, A. (2002). Internet paradox revisited. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 49-74. doi: 10.1111/1540-4560.00248
Leary, M.R. & Allen, A.B. (2011). Personality & persona: Personality processes in self-presentation. Journal of Personality, 79(6), 1191-1218. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00704.x
Lee, S., Hansen, S.S., & Lee, J.K. (2016). What makes us click “like” on Facebook? Examining psychological, technological, and motivational factors on virtual endorsement, Computer Communications. 73(1), 332 - 341. doi: 10.1016/j.comcom.2015.08.002
Lee-Won, R.J., Shim, M., & Joo, Y.K. (2014). Who puts the best ‘‘face’’ forward on Facebook?: positive self-presentation in online social networking and the role of self-consciousness, actual-to-total Friends ratio, and culture. Computers in Human Behavior, 39, 413–423. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.08.007
Loomer, J. (2012) Detailed history of Facebook changes 2004012. Retrieved from: http://www.jonloomer.com/2012/05/06/history-of-facebook-changes/
McCrae, R.R. & Costa, P.T. (1990). Personality in adulthood. New York: Guilford.
McCrae, R.R. & Costa, P.T. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory perspective. New York: The Guilford Press.
McCrae, R.R. & John, O.P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175-215.
Moore, K. & McElroy, J.C. (2012). The influence of personality on Facebook usage, wall postings, and regret. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 267–274. Doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2011.09.009.
Mor, N. & Winquist, J. (2002). Self-focused attention and negative affect: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 638–662. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.638
Mullins J. (2016) This is how Facebook has changed over the past 12 years. Retrieved from: http://www.eonline.com/uk/news/736977/this-is-how-facebook-has-changed-over-the-past-12-years
Norman, W.T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574-583.
Peckham, J. (2016) History of Facebook: All the major updates and changes from 2004-2016. Retrieved from: http://www.knowyourmobile.com/apps/facebook/21807/history-facebook-all-major-updates-changes-2004-2016
Raskin, R. & Terry, H. (1988). A principal-components analysis of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and further evidence of its construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 890–902. Doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.5.890.
Riggo, H.R. & Riggo, R.E. (2002). Emotional expressiveness, extraversion, and neuroticism: A meta-analysis. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 26(4), 195-218.
Ross, C., Orr, E.S., Sisic, M., Arseneault, J.M., Simmering, M.G., & Orr, R. (2009). Personality and motivations associated with Facebook use. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 578–586. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2008.12.024
Ryan, T. & Xenos, S. (2011). Who uses Facebook? An investigation into the relationship between the Big Five, shyness, narcissism, loneliness, and Facebook usage. Computers in Human Behaviors, 27, 1658–1664. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.004
Scott, G.G., Boyle, E., Czerniawska, K., & Courtney, A. (2018). Posting photos on Facebook: The impact of narcissism, social anxiety, loneliness, and shyness. Personality and Individual Differences, 133, 67-72. Doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.039
Scott, G.G. & Hand, C.J. (2016). Motivation determined Facebook viewing strategy: An eye movement analysis. Computers in Human Behaviour, 56, 267-280. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.029
Scott, G.G. & Ravenscroft, K. (2017). Bragging on Facebook: The interaction of content source and focus in online impression formation. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 20(1), 58-63. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2016.0311
Scott, G.G., Sinclair, J., Short, E., & Bruce, G. (2014). It’s not what you say, it’s how you say it: Language use on Facebook impacts employability but not attractiveness. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 17(8), 562-566. Doi: 10.1089/cyber.2013.0584
Seidman, G. (2013). Self-presentation and belonging on Facebook: How personality influences social media use and motivations. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 402–407. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.009
Tosun, L.P. (2012). Motives for Facebook use and expressing “true self” on the internet. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 1510-1517. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.03.018
Vazire, S., Naumann, L.P., Rentfrow, P.J., & Gosling, S.D. (2008). Portrait of a narcissist: Manifestations of narcissism in physical appearance. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 1439–1447. doi: 10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.007
Wilson, K., Fornasier, S., & White, K.M. (2010). Psychological predictors of young adults’ use of social networking sites. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, & Social Networking, 13(2): 173-177. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2009.0094
Xia, M., Huang, Y., Duan, W., & Whinston, A.B. (2007). Implicit many-to-one communication in online communities. Communities and Technologies 2007: Proceedings of the Third Communities and Technologies Conference, Michigan State University 2007: 265-174.
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